^h^" 


NORTH  CAROLINA  STATE  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 


S02868424  Y 


a.  j.  -4^. 


THE 


Bee-Keeoer's  Guide; 

OR 

MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY, 


-BY- 


A.  }.  COOK, 


Late  Professor  of  Entomolos:y  in  the  Michigan  State  Agricultural  College, 
Professor  of  Zoology- Pomona  College,  Claremont,  California, 


Al^HOR  OF 

' Injurious  Insects  of  Michigan"  "  Maple  Sugar  and  the 
Sugar  Bush,"  and  "Silo  and  Silage," 


SEVENTEENTH  EpITlON, 


Revised,  Enifcrgc^,  Re-Wfjttizti&nd  Beautifully  Illustrated. 


NINETEENTH  THOUSAND. 


CHICAGO,  ILL. 
GEORGE;  W.  YORK  &  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS. 
1902 


Entered  according-  to  Act  of  GomgteSs/itf  tlie^year  1883,  by 

ALBERfP.J.XOOK, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librat^l.Sf'Copgiress,  a/  W^sb^^gt(rn,  D.  C. 


In  compliance  with  current  copyright  law,  Etherington 

Conservation  Services  produced  this  replacement  volume 

on  paper  that  meets  ANSI  Standard  Z39.48-1992  and  ISO 

9706.  Preservation  facsimile  printing  and  binding 

by  Etherington  Conservation  Services 

Browns  Summit,  North  Carolina. 

www.thehfgroup.com 

2008 

00 


Consei-vation  Services 

IH-6roup 


TO  THE 

REVEREND  L,.  E.  EANGSTROTH, 

THE 

INVENTOR  OF  THE  MOVABLE-FRAME  HIVE, 

THE   HUBER   OF   AMERICA, 

AND    ONE  OF  THE   GREATEST   MASTERS  OF  PURE   AND  APPI,IED 

SCIENCE,  AS  RELATING  TO  APICULTURE, 

IN  THE  WORLD, 

THIS   MANUAL   IS    GRATEFULLY   DEDICATED 

BY 

THE  AUTHOR. 


PREFACE. 


In  1876,  in  response  to  a  desire  frequently  expressed  by  my  apiarian 
friends,  principally  my  students,  I  published  an  edition  of  3000  copies  of 
the  little,  unpretending  "  Manual  of  the  Apiary."  This  was  little  more 
than  the  course  of  lectures  which  I  gave  annually  at  the  Michigan  Agri- 
cultural College.  In  less  than  two  years  this  was  exhausted,  and  the 
second  edition,  enlarged,  revised,  and  much  more  fully  illustrated,  was 
issued.  So  great  was  the  sale  that  in  less  than  a  year  this  was  followed 
by  the  third  and  fourth  editions,  and,  in  less  than  two  years,  the  fifth 
edition  (seventh  thousand)  was  issued. 

In  each  of  the  two  following  years,  another  edition  was  demanded. 
In  each  of  these  editions  the  book  has  been  enlarged,  changes  made,  and 
illustrations  added,  that  the  book  might  keep  pace  with  our  rapidly 
advancing  art. 

So  great  has  been  the  demand  for  this  work,  not  only  at  home  and  in 
Europe,  but  even  in  more  distant  lands,  and  so  great  has  been  the  prog- 
ress of  apiculture— so  changed  the  views  and  methods  of  our  best  bee- 
keepers— that  the  author  feels  warranted  in  thoroughly  revising  and 
entirely  recasting  this  eighth  edition  (tenth  thousand).  Not  only  is  the 
work  re-written,  but  much  new  matter,  and  many  new  and  costly  illus- 
trations, are  added. 

The  above  I  quote  directly  from  the  preface  of  the  eighth  edition, 
published  in  1883.  Since  then  four  editions  have  appeared,  each  reyised 
as  the  progress  of  the  art  required. 

In  electrotyping  the  eighth  edition,  through  an  accident  very  poor 
work  was  done,  so  that  the  impressions  of  the  last  three  editions  have 
been  far  from  satisfactory.  This  has  led  me  wholly  to  revise  the  present, 
or  thirteenth  edition.  In  doing  this  I  have  thought  it  wise  to  add  largely, 
especially  to  the  scientific  portion,  as  the  intelligence  of  our  bee-keepers 
demands  the  fullest  information.  I  have  thus  added  one  hundred  and 
fifty  pages  and  more  than  thirty  illustrations.    All  this  has  involved  so 


PREFACE. 

much  expense  that  I  am  forced,  though  very  reluctantly,  to  increase  the 
price  of  the  work. 

As  our  bee-keepers  know,  I  have  permitted  wide  use  of  the  illustra- 
tions prepared  expressly  for  this  work,  believing  heartily  in  the  motto, 
"  greatest  good  to  the  greatest  number;"  sol  have  drawn  widely  from 
others.  I  am  greatly  indebted  to  all  these,  and  have  given  credit  with 
the  illustration. 

Since  the  above  was  penned  three  editions  have  appeared,  the  last, 
sixteenth,  in  1899.  Each  has  been  revised.  Both  the  science  and  prac- 
tice have  so  advanced  that  I  now  recast  entirely  this,  the  seventeenth 
edition. 

I  wish  again  to  express  my  thanks  and  gratitude  to  our  wide-awake 
American  apiarists,  without  whose  aid  it  would  have  oeen  impossible  to 
bave  written  this  work.  I  am  under  special  obligation  to  Messrs.  Cowan, 
York  and  Root,  and  to  my  students  who  have  aided  me,  both  in  the 
apiary  and  laboratory. 

As  I  stated  in  the  preface  to  the  eighth  edition,  it  is  my«desi'.e  and 
determination  that  this  work  shall  continue  to  be  the  exponent  of  the 
most  improved  apiculture ;  and  no  pains  will  be  spared,  that  each  suc- 
ceeding edition  may  embody  the  latest  improvements  and  discoveries 
wrought  out  by  the  practical  man  and  the  scientist,  as  gleaned  from  the 
excellent  home  and  foreign  apiarian  and  scientific  periodicals. 

The  above  was  prefaced  to  the  Eighteenth  one  thousand  published 
in  1900.  This  Nineteenth  one  thousand  has  been  wholly  revised,  about  80 
pages  and  75  engravings  added.  We  believe  it  is  now  at  the  front  in 
bee-keeping  science  and  practice.  A.  J.  COOK. 

Pomona  College,  Claremont,  California^  1902. 


CONTENTS 


Introduction.— p.  13. 

Who  May  Keep  Bees. 

Specialists,Amateurs,Who  Should 
Not  Keep  Bees,  Inducements  to 
Bee-Keeping,  Recreation,  Profits, 
Excellence  as  an  Amateur  Pursuit, 
Adaptation  to  Women,  Improves 
the  Mind,  the  Observation  and 
Heart,  Yields  Delicious  Food^ 
Brings  the  Second  Blade  ©f"  Grass, 
Adds  to  the  Nation's  Wealth, 
What  Successful  Be'eKeepJrg  Re- 
quires, Mental  Effoii^,  Eji^erieace 
Necessary,  Learn-  fi-ojn  Gchtrs,  Aid 
from  ConventiOfl6.,V-iJ^  from  Bee- 
Journals,  American-  Bee  Journal, 
Gleanings  in  Bee-Culture,  Bee- 
Keepers'  Review,  Canadian  Bee 
Journal,  Aiierican  o  Bee-Keeper, 
Progressive  Eee-.Keeper,  Lone  Star 
Apiarist,  Book's  <ol-  the  Apiarist, 
Langstroth  ol  the  Iloney-Bee,  A  B 
C  of  Bee-Culture,  R^ios  «ind  Honey, 
Scientific  Queeri-Rea'^lL^,  (Advanced 
Bee-Culture,  Bee-I^e'cpi^g  for  Be- 
ginners, Foreigr,  PubUcatiOLS, 
British  Bee  Journal,  Foreign  Books, 
Promptitude,  Enthusiasni. 


Part  I. 

NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   THE  HONEY- 
BEE. 

CHAPTER  I.- p.  31. 

The  Bee^s  Place  in  the  Animal  King- 
dom. 

Branch  of  the  Honey-Bee,  The 
Class  of  the  Honey-Bee,  Order  of 
the    Honey-Bee,     Family    of  the 


Honey-Bee,  The  Genus  of  the 
Honey-Bee,  Species  of  Our  Honey- 
Bees,  Races  of  the  Honey-Bee,  Ger- 
man or  Black  Bee,  Ligurian  or  Ital- 
ian, The  Syrian  and  Cyprian  Races, 
Other  Races,  Bibliography,  Val- 
uable Books  for  the  Student  of 
Entomology. 


CHAPTER  XL— p.  64. 

Atiaiomy  and  Physiology. 

,  Ar\a>;otny  of  Insects,  Organs  of 
the  ,Htad,  Appendages  of  the 
Thorax, .  Internal  Anatomy  of  In- 
sects, Secretory  Organs  of  Insects, 
Sex-Organs  of  lasects.  Transforma- 
tion of  Insects,  The  Egg,The  Larva 
of  Insecte,  IJhe'Pupa  of  Insects, 
The  Imago  Stage,Incomplete  Trans- 
formation,Anatomy  and  Physiology 
of  the  npney-Bae,  Three  Kinds  of 
Bees  in  etfih  Family,  The  Queen- 
Bee,  Straccure  and  Natural  His- 
tory, Tlij;  Drones,  The  Neuters  or 
WorJ'.or.'?,  Glandular  Organs. 


CHAPTER  III.— p.  165. 

Swarming,  or  Natural  Methods  of 
Increase. 


CHAPTER  IV.— p.  171. 

Products  of  Bees,  their  Origiii  and 
Function. 

Honey, Wax, Pollen, or  Bee-Bread, 
Propolis,  Bibliography. 


Part  II. 

THE    APIARY,     ITS    CARE    AND    MAN- 
AGEMENT. 

INTRODUCTION.— p.  201. 

Starting  an  Apiary. 

Preparation,  Read  a  Good  Man- 
ual, Visit  Some  Apiarist,  Take  a 
College  Course,  Decide  on  a  Plan, 
How  to  Procure  First  Colonies, 
Kind  of  Bees  to  Purchase,  In  What 
Kind  of  Hives,  When  to  Purchase, 
How  Much  to  Pay, Where  to  Locate 


CHAPTER  V— p.  207, 
Hives  and  Sections. 
Box-Hives,  Movable-Comb  Hives, 
Early  Frame  Hives,  The  Langstroth 
Hive,  Character  of  the  Hive,  Whafe 
Style  to  Adopt,  The  Heddoa  Sur-; 
plus-Case,    The     Cover,  jTiviSfofi.; 
Board,    Cloth    Covers.  •  TCb^'^lJ&w. 
Heddon  Hive, The  Fr^pnes^JC Block* 
for   Making     Framas,  'Oirsfei;  'for 
Frames,  the  Huber.Hive,  Observa- 
tory Hive,  Apparatus  for  Procuring 
Comb  Honev,  Surplus  Corrfb  Honey 
in  Sections,  How  »o  Plactf  Sections 
in     Position,   Secti»«]^*in»  Frames, 
Crates  or  Racks,  •  Fences?  Separa- 
tors, Foot-Power  SaV^ 

CHAPTER  VL-;55..863r  . 
rosition  aud  Arrangemmit>'o^JjSi»r]j^ 
Position,  Arrangement  of  •Grft)i;fnds^ 
Preparation  for  Each  Colony. 

CHAPTER  VII.-p.  258. 
To  Transfer  Bees. 
The  Old  Method,  Hunting  Bee- 
Trees. 


CHAPTER  VIII.— p.  264. 

Feeding  and  Feeders. 

What    to    Feed,    How  to  Feed, 
Smith  Feeder. 


CHAPTER  IX.— p.  273. 

Queen- Rearing. 

How  to  Rear  Queens,  Nuclei, 
Queen  Lamp-Nursery,  Shall  We 
Clip  the  Queen's  Wing  ?  Laying 
Workers,  Queen  Register,  or  Api- 
ary Register. 


CHAPTER  X.— p.  293. 

Increase  of  Colonies. 

Swarming,  Hiving  Swarms,  To 
Prevent  Second  Swarms,  To  Pre- 
vent Swarming,  Artificial  Increase, 
How  to  Divide,  Capturing  Abscond- 
ing Swarms. 


CH'Ai'TER  XI.— p.  306. 

^ttiiitPn^Mnd  Italianizing. 

The  Ne>.*paqps*  of  Bees,  What 
Bees  Shall'^^^'eep.?  How  to  Ital- 
ianize, How  to  Introduce  a  Queen, 
Valentine's  Comb  S^and,  To  Get 
Our  Italian*  Queen^s,  To  Ship 
Queens,  The  **  Good  "  Candy,  Prep- 
arations to  SlMg,'Ta^ove  Colonies. 


CHAf'TElR'XII.— p.  321. 

.  .Bxhactifrg'eitiil  the  Extractor. 

Honeu-Estractor, Desirable  Points 
in  an  p^xtfactor.  Use  of  Extractor, 
Wti^n  to  Use  the  Extractor,  To 
Keep  Extracted  Honey. 

CHAPTER  XIII.— p.  335. 

WorkiJig  for  Comb  Honey. 

Points  to  Consider,  To  Secure 
Strong  Colonies,  To  Avoid  the 
Swarming  Fever,  Adjustment  of 
Sections,  Getting  Bees  into  Sec- 
tions, Removal  of  Sections. 


CONTBNYS. 


CHAPTER  XIV.— p.  343. 
Handling  Bees. 

The  Best  Bee-Veil,  To  Quiet  Bees, 
BeUows  Smoker,  The  Quinby 
Smoker,  To  Smoke  Bees,  Chloro- 
form, To  Cure  Stings,  The  Sweat 
Theory,  The  Bee-Tent. 


CHAPTER  XV.— p.  353. 
Comb  Foundation. 

History,  American  Foundation, 
The  Press  for  Foundation,  How 
Foundation  is  Made,  To  Secure  the 
Wax-Sheets,  Use  of  Foundation, 
Wired  Frames,  Save  the  Wax, 
Methods,  Wax-Press. 


CHAPTER  XVI.— p.  373. 
Marketing  Honey. 

How  to  Invigorate  the  Market, 
Preparation  for  Market,  Extracted 
Honey,  How  to  Tempt  the  Con- 
sumer, Comb  Honey,  Rules  to  be 
Observed,  Marketing  Bees,  Selling 
Queens,  Selling  Bees  by  the  Pound, 
Vinegar  from  Honey,  Fairs  and  the 
Market,  What  Should  We  Have  1 
Effects  of  Such  Exhibits. 


CHAPTER  XVII.— p.  389. 
Hoiiey- Plants. 

Real  Honey-Dew,  Sweet  Sap  and 
Juices,  What  are  the  Valuable 
Honey-Plants  1  Description  With 
Practical  Remarks,  March  Plants, 
April  Plants,  May  Plants,  June 
Plants,  July  Plants,  August  and 
September  Plants,Books  on  Botany, 
Practical  Conclusions. 


CHAPTER  XVIII.-p.  454. 
Wintering  Bees. 

The  Causes  of  Disastrous  Win- 
tering, The  Requisite  to  Safe  Win- 
tering— Good  Food,  Secure  Late 
Breeding,  To  Secure  and  Maintain 
the  Proper  Temperature,  Box  for 
Packing,  Chaff  Hives,  Rules  for 
their  Use,  Wintering  in  Bee-House, 
Wintering  in  Cellar,  Burying  Bees 
or  Clamps,  Spring  Dwindling. 


CHAPTER  XIX.— p.  468. 
The  House- Apiary  and  Bee-House, 
Bee-Houses. 

CHAPTER  XX.— p.  473. 

'Evils  that  Confront  the  Apiarist. 

Robbing,  Disease,  Foul  Brood, 
Remedies,  To  Cure  Bee- Paralysis, 
To  Cure  New  Bue-Diseases,  Ene- 
mies of  Bees,  The  Bee-Moih,  His- 
tory, Remedies,  The  Wee  Bee-Moth, 
Remedies,  Two  Destructive  Beetles, 
Robber-Flies,  The  Stinging  Bug, 
The  Bee-Stabber,  Bee- Hawk,  Tach- 
ina-Fly,  Bee-Louse,  Ants,  Florida 
Ant,  The  Cow-Killer,  The  Praying 
Mantis,  Blister-Beetles,  Wasps,  A 
Bee-Mite,  Remedies,  California  Bee- 
Killer,  Spiders,  The  King-Bird,  The 
Toads,  Mice,  Shrews,  Skunks. 

CHAPTER  XXL— p.  512. 

Calendar  and  Axioms. 

Work  for  Different  Months,  Jan- 
uary, February,  March,  April,  May, 
June,  July,  August,  September, 
October,  November,  December, 
Axioms,  Glossary. 


INTKODUCTION. 


WHO  MAY  KEEP  BEES. 
SPECIALISTS. 
Any  person  who  is  cautious,  observing-  and  prompt,  will 
succeed  in  bee-keeping.  He  must  expect  to  work  with  full 
energy  through  the  busy  season,  and  persist  though  discour- 
agement and  misfortune  both  confront  him.  I  need  not  men- 
tion capital  or  location,  for  men  of  true  metal— men  whose 
energy  of  body  and  mind  bespeak  success  in  advance— will 
solve  these  questions  long  before  their  experience  and  knowl- 
edge warrant  their  assuming  the  charge  of  large  apiaries. 

AMATEURS. 
Bee-l^eeping  is  specially  to  be  recommended  as  an  avoca- 
tion. Bees  are  of  great  value  in  fertilizing  fruits,  grains  and 
vegetables  ;  they  also  save  millions  of  pounds  of  most  whole- 
some food  which  would  otherwise  go  to  waste  ;  and  experience 
amply  proves  that  they  may  be  kept  in  city,  village  and  coun- 
try at  a  good  profit,  and  so  any  person,  possessed  of  the  proper 
ability,  tact  and  energy,  may  adopt  bee-keeping,  and  thus  do 
good,  gain  pleasure,  and  often  receive  profit,  as  experience  has 
shown,  more  than  is  derived  from  the  regular  occupation.  The 
late  Mr.  C.  F.  Muth,  of  Cincinnati,  long  kept  bees  very  profit- 
ably on  his  store,  in  the  very  heart  of  the  city.  Hundreds  of 
our  most  successful  bee-keepers  live  in  small  towns  and  vil- 
lages, and  add  bee-culture  to  their  work  in  shop,  office,  or  study, 
and  receive  health,  pleasure,  and  money  as  a  reward.  I^adies  all 
over  our  country  are  finding  in  this  pursuit  pleasure,  and  oppor- 
tunity to  exercise  in  the  pure  air,  which  means  health,  and 
money.  Farmers  are  adding  bee-keeping  to  their  farms,  to 
find  not  infrequently  that  the  bees  are  their  most  profitable 
property.  Orchardists,  especially,  need  and  must  have  bees  to 
pollinate  the  fruit-blossoms,  and  insure  a  crop.  The  time 
required  will  of  course  depend  upon  the  number  of  colonies 
kept ;  but  with  wise  management,  this  time  may  be  given  at 


14  THE  BEE-KEEPER'S  GUIDE  ; 

any  time  of  the  day  or  week,  and  thus  not  interfere  with  the 
regular  business.  Thus  residents  of  country,  village  or  city, 
male  or  female,  who  enjoy  the  society  and  study  of  natural 
objects,  and  wish  to  add  to  their  income  and  pleasure,  will  find 
here  an  ever  waiting  opportunity. 

WHO  SHOULD  NOT    KEEP  BEES. 

There  are  occasionally  persons  to  whom  the  venom  of  the 
bee  is  a  serious  poison.  If  such  persons  are  stung  anywhere 
their  eyes  swell  so  they  can  not  see,  the  skin  blotches,  and 
serious  irritation  is  felt  over  the  entire  body.  Such  persons 
are  often  overcome  with  fever  for  several  days,  and,  though 
very  rarely,  the  sting  sometimes  proves  fatal.  It  goes  without 
saying  that  such  persons  should  not  keep  bees. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  the  sting  of  the  honey-bee 
becomes  less  and  less  poisonous  the  more  one  is  stung.  The 
system  becomes  inoculated  against  the  poison.  My  own  ex- 
perience proves  this  most  conclusively.  Every  bee-keeper  will 
receive  occasional  stings,  but  these  become  more  and  more 
rare,  and  soon  occasion  neither  fear  nor  anxiety. 

INDUCEMENTS  TO  BEE-KEEPING. 

RECREATION. 

I  name  this  first,  as  it  was  the  pleasure  in  store  that  led  me 
to  the  art  of  keeping  bees,  though  I  was  terribly  afraid  of  bees 
at  the  beginning.  There  is  a  rare  fascination  in  the  study  of 
nature.  Insect  life  is  ever  presenting  the  most  pleasurable 
surprises  to  those  who  study  it.  Bees,  from  their  wonderful 
instincts,  curious  structure  and  habits,  and  the  interesting 
relations  which  they  sustain  to  vegetable  life,  are  most  fasci- 
nating objects  of  study.  The  observant  and  appreciative  bee- 
keeper is  ever  the  witness  of  exhibitions  that  incite  wonder 
and  admiration.  This  is  why  bee-keepers  are  always  enthusi- 
asts. I  know  of  no  class  of  laborers  who  dwell  more  fondly  on 
their  work  and  business  than  do  bee-keepers.  A  thorough 
study  of  the  marvelous  economy  of  the  honey-bee  must,  from 
its  very  nature,  bring  delight  and  admiration.  A  farmer  once 
said  to  me,  "Were  it  not  for  the  generous  profits  of  the  busi- 
ness, I  would  still  keep  bees  for  the   real  pleasure  I  receive  in 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF   THE   APIARY.  IS 

the  business."  I  once  asked  a  hard  worked  teacher  why  he 
kept  bees.  I  felt  like  saying-  amen  to  his  answer  :  "  For  the 
restful  pleasure  which  the  work  gives."  I  have  often  gone  to 
the  bees  tired  and  nervous,  and  after  an  hour's  labor,  felt  re- 
freshed, as  by  sound  sleep.  I  have  been  deeply  gratified  many 
times  by  the  letters  thanking  me  for  having  turned  the  writers' 
attention  towards  bee-keeping.  I  often  think  that  if  a  person 
does  embark  in  bee-keeping,  commencing  in  a  small  way— cwrf 
no  person  should  begin  in  any  oiherway— the  knowledge  gained 
and  consequent  pleasure  received  will  prove  ample  remunera- 
tion, even  should  no  practical  results  follow.  The  man  is 
broadened  by  the  study,  and  better  fitted  to  enjoy  life. 

Some  years  since  my  old  friend  and  college  classmate,  O. 
Clute,  visited  me.  Of  course,  I  must  show  him  the  bees.  He 
was  delighted,  took  this  "  Manual  "  home  with  him,  purchased 
some  bees  at  once,  and  became  enraptured  with  the  work,  and 
the  result  of  all  this  was  another  first-class  bee-keeper  and 
that  most  fascinating  work  of  fiction,  "  Blessed  Bees." 

PROFITS. 

The  profits  in  bee-keeping  ofi^er  strong  inducements  towards 
its  adoption  as  a  pursuit.  I  believe  few  manual-labor  occupa- 
tions offer  so  large  returns,  if  we  consider  the  capital  invested. 
True,  bee-keeping  requires  hard  work,  but  this  is  only  for  a 
portion  of  the  year,  and  in  winter  there  is  almost  no  work, 
especially  if  the  bee-keeper  buys  all  his  hives,  sections,  etc., 
which  is  usually  wiser  than  to  make  them.  The  cautious, 
prompt  and  skillful  bee-keeper  will  often  be  able  to  secure  an 
annual  average  of  seventy-five  pounds  per  colony,  besides 
doubling  the  number  of  his  colonies.  This  will  give  $10.00  per 
colony  at  least,  which  is  almost  as  much  as  the  colony,  with 
required  apparatus,  is  worth.  Of  course,  poor  years  will  con- 
front the  bee-keeper.  Winter  losses  will  be  experienced  by  the 
beginner.  Some  will  fail  entirely.  The  fickle,  careless,  indo- 
lent man  will  as  surely  fail  in  bee-keeping  as  in  any  other 
calling.  Yet  if  one  studies  the  science  and  art,  and  commences 
bee-keeping  in  a  small  way,  as  all  should,  he  will  be  no  great 
loser,  even  if  he  find  that  he  is  not  suited  to  the  business.  He 
knows  more  and  is  a  broader  man  for  this  study  and  experi- 
ence.   My  brother,  who  is  a  good  farmer,  with  a  fertile  and 


16  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

weU-stocked  farm,  commenced  bee-keeping  more  to  interest 
his  boys  than  aught  else.  He  has  met  very  little  loss  in  win- 
tering—for years  together  none  at  all.  For  three  successive 
years  his  sixty  colonies  of  bees  gave  him  more  profits  than  all 
the  balance  of  his  farm.  As  he  said  at  one  of  the  Michigan 
State  Conventions  :  "  I  find  my  bees  the  pleasantest  and  most 
profitable  part  of  my  farm."  He  added  the  surprising  remark, 
"Nothing  on  my  farm  bears  neglect  better  than  my  bees."  I 
might  add  that  neglect  is  rarely  seen  on  his  farm. 

Adam  Grimm,  James  Heddon,  G.  M.  Doolittle,  E.  J.  Oat- 
man,  and  many  others,  have  made  much  money  in  this  pursuit. 
Mr.  Hetherington  keeps  thousands  of  colonies  of  bees,  and  has 
received  over  $10,000  cash  receipts  in  a  single  year.  Mr.  Clute, 
an  able  clergyman,  has  often  received  more  money  from  his 
bees  than  from  his  salary  as  a  preacher.  All  over  our  country 
men  are  gaining  a  livelihood  in  this  industry,  and  often  earn- 
ing as  much  more  in  other  pursuits.  The  opportunity  to  make 
money,  even  with  hardships  and  privations,  is  attractive  and 
seldom  disregarded.  What  shall  we  say  then  of  this  oppor- 
tunity, if  the  labor  which  it  involves,  brings  in  itself  healthful 
recreation  and  constant  delight  ?  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller  gave  up  a 
$2500  salary  to  engage  in  bee-keeping.  Though  a  specialist, 
and  though  his  profits  some  years,  owing  to  the  drouth,  are 
nothing,  yet  he  is  contented  with  the  business,  and  has  no  idea 
of  changing  for  any  other. 

EXCELLENCE  AS  AN  AMATEUR  PURSUIT. 
After  twenty  years  of  experience,  I  am  persuaded  that  no 
business  offers  more  as  an  avocation.  Indeed,  I  think  bee- 
keeping may  ofttimes  best  serve  as  a  second  business.  We 
have  already  seen  that  bees  are  a  blessing,  and  I  would  have 
every  person,  whatever  his  leading  business,  keep  a  few  colo- 
nies of  bees,  unless  by  taste,  nature  or  temperament,  he  be 
unfitted  for  the  work.  Bee-keeping  offers  additional  funds  to 
the  poorly  paid  ;  outdoor  air  to  clerk  and  oflBce-hand  ;  healthful 
exercise  to  the  person  of  sedentary  habits,  opportunity,  for  the 
poor  to  reap  what  would  otherwise  go  to  waste,  and  superior 
recreation  to  the  student,  teacher  and  professional  man,  espe- 
cially to  him  whose  life-work  is  of  that  dull,  hum-drum,  rou- 
tine order  that  seems  to  rob  life  of  all  zest. 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  17 

The  labor  required  in  bee-keeping,  especially  if  but  few 
colonies  are  kept,  can,  with  thought  and  management,  be  so 
arranged  as  not  to  infringe  upon  the  time  demanded  by  the 
regular  occupation.  Even  the  farmer,  by  wise  foresight,  can 
arrange  so  that  his  bees  will  not  interfere  greatly  with  his 
regular  farm  work.  I  have  never  received  more  hearty  thanks 
than  from  persons  whom  I  had  influenced  to  add  the  care  of 
bees  to  their  other  duties. 

ADAPTATION   TO  WOMEN. 

Apiculture  may  also  bring  succor  to  those  whom  society 
has  not  been  over-ready  to  favor — our  women.  Widowed 
mothers,  dependent  girls,  the  weak  and  the  feeble,  aU  may  find 
a  blessing  in  the  easy,  pleasant  and  profitable  labors  of  the 
apiary.  Of  course,  women  who  lack  vigor  and  health  can  care 
for  but  very  few  colonies,  and  must  have  suflBcient  strength  to 
bend  over  and  lift  the  small-sized  frames  of  comb  when  loaded 
with  honey,  and  to  carry  empty  hives.  With  the  proper 
thought  and  management,  full  colonies  need  never  be  lifted, 
nor  work  done  in  the  hot  sunshine.  Yet,  right  here  let  me 
add,  and  emphasize  the  truth,  that  only  those  who  will  let  ener- 
getic thought  and  skillful  plan,  and  above  all  promptitude  and 
persistence,  make  up  for  physical  weakness,  should  enlist  as 
apiarists.  Usually  a  stronger  body  and  improved  health,  the 
result^f  pure  air,  sunshine  and  exercise,  will  make  each  suc- 
cessive day's  labor  more  easy,  and  will  permit  a  corresponding 
growth  in  the  size  of  the  apiary  for  each  successive  season. 
One  of  the  most  noted  apiarists,  not  only  in  America,  but  in 
the  world,  sought  in  bee-keeping  her  health,  and  found  not 
only  health,  but  reputation  and  influence.  Some  of  the  most 
successful  apiarists  in  our  country  are  women.  Of  these, 
many  were  led  to  adopt  the  pursuit  because  of  waning  health, 
grasping  at  this  as  the  last  and  successful  weapon  with  which 
to  vanquish  the  grim  monster. 

That  able  apiarist,  and  terse  writer  on  apiculture,  Mrs.  ly. 
Harrison,  states  that  the  physicians  told  her  that  she  could  not 
live  ;  but  apiculture  did  for  her  what  the  physicians  could  not 
do— restored  her  to  health,  and  gave  her  such  vigor  that  she 
has  been  able  to  work  a  large  apiary  for  years. 

Said   "  Cyula  Linswik  "—whose  excellent  and   beautifully 


18  THE   BKB-KEEPER'S  GUIDE; 

written  articles  have  so  often  charmed  the  readers  of  the  bee- 
journals,  and  who  has  had  many  years  of  successful  experi- 
ence as  an  apiarist — in  a  paper  read  before  the  Michigan  con- 
vention in  March,  1887  :  "  I  would  gladly  purchase  exemption 
from  indoor  work,  on  washing-day,  by  two  days'  labor  among 
the  bees,  and  I  find  two  hours'  labor  at  the  ironing-table  more 
fatiguing  than  two  hours  of  the  severest  toil  the  apiary  can 
exact."  I  repeat,  that  apiculture  offers  to  many  women  not 
only  pleasure  but  profit 

Mrs.  L,.  B.  Baker,  of  Lansing,  Mich.,  who  had  kept  bees 
very  successfully  for  four  years,  read  an  admirable  paper  be- 
fore the  same  convention,  in  which  she  said  :  "  But  I  can  say, 
having  tried  both  (keeping  boarding-house  and  apiculture),  I 
give  bee-keeping  the  preference,  as  more  profitable,  healthful, 
independent  and  enjoyable.  *  *  *  I  find  the  labors  of  the 
apiary  more  endurable  than  working  over  a  cook-stove  indoors, 
and  more  pleasant  and  conducive  to  health.  *  *  *  i  be- 
lieve that  many  of  our  delicate  and  invalid  ladies  would  find 
renewed  vigor  of  body  and  mind  in  the  labors  and  recreations 
of  the  apiary.  *  *  *  By  beginning  in  the  early  spring, 
when  the  weather  was  cool  and  the  work  light,  I  became  grad- 
ually accustomed  to  outdoor  labor,  and  by  midsummer  found 
myself  as  well  able  to  endure  the  heat  of  the  sun  as  my  hus- 
band, who  has  been  accustomed  to  it  all  his  life.  Previously, 
to  attend  an  open-air  picnic  was  to  return  with  a  headache. 
*  *  *  My  own  experience  in  the  apiary  has  been  a  source 
of  interest  and  enjoyment  far  exceeding  my  anticipations." 
Although  Mrs.  Baker  commenced  with  but  two  colonies  of 
bees,  her  net  profits  the  first  season  were  over  $100  ;  the  second 
year  but  a  few  cents  less  than  $300  ;  and  the  third  year  about 
$250.  "The  proof  of  the  pudding  is  in  the  eating ;"  and  such 
words  as  those  above  show  that  apiculture  offers  special  in- 
ducements to  our  sisters  to  become  either  amateur  or  profes- 
sional apiarists.  At  the  present  time  almost  every  State  has 
women  bee-keepers,  whose  success  has  won  attention.  True 
it  is,  that  in  neatness  and  delicacy  of  manipulation,  the  women 
far  surpass  the  men.  The  nicest  honey  produced  in  Michigan, 
year  after  year,  comes  from  the  apiary  of  two  ladies  who  I 
believe  are  peers  of  any  bee-keepers  in  pur  country. 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY.  I9 

IMPROVES  THE  MIND,  THE  OBSERVATION,  AND  THE  HEART. 
Successful  apiculture  demands  close  and  accurate  obser- 
vation, and  hard,  continuous  thought  and  study,  and  this,  too, 
in  the  wondrous  realm  of  nature.  In  all  this,  the  apiarist  re- 
ceives manifold  and  substantial  advantages.  In  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  habit  of  observation  a  person  becomes  constantly 
more  able,  useful  and  susceptible  to  pleasure— results  which 
also  follow  as  surely  on  the  habit  of  thought  and  study.  It  is 
hardly  conceivable  that  the  wide-awake  apiarist  who  is  so 
frequently  busy  with  his  wonder-working  comrades  of  the 
hive,  can  ever  be  lonely,  or  feel  time  hanging  heavily  on  his 
hands.  The  mind  is  occupied,  and  there  is  no  chance  for 
ennui.  The  whole  tendency  of  such  thought  and  study,  where 
nature  is  the  subject,  is  to  refine  the  taste,  elevate  the  desires, 
and  ennoble  manhood.  Once  get  our  youth,  with  their  sus- 
ceptible natures,  engaged  in  such  wholesome  study,  and  we 
shall  have  less  reason  to  fear  the  vicious  tendencies  of  the 
street,  or  the  luring  vices  and  damning  influences  of  the 
saloon.  Thus  apiculture  spreads  an  intellectual  feast  that 
even  the  old  philosophers  would  have  coveted ;  furnishes  the 
rarest  food  for  the  observing  faculties,  and,  best  of  all,  by 
keeping  its  votaries  face  to  face  with  the  matchless  creations 
of  the  All  Father,  must  draw  them  toward  Him  "  who  went 
about  doing  good,"  and  "  in  whom  there  was  no  guile." 

YIELDS  DELICIOUS  FOOD. 

A  last  inducement  of  apiculture,  certainly  not  unworthy  of 
mention,  is  the  offering  it  brings  to  our  tables.  Health,  yea 
our  very  lives,  demands  that  we  eat  sweets.  It  is  a  truth  that 
our  sugars,  and  especially  our  commercial  syrups,  are  so  adul- 
terated as  to  be  often  poisonous.  The  apiary  in  lieu  of  these, 
gives  us  one  of  the  most  delicious  and  wholesome  of  sweets, 
which  has  received  merited  praise,  as  food  fit  for  the  gods, 
from  the  most  ancient  time  to  the  present  day.  Ever  to  have 
within  reach  the  beautiful,  immaculate  comb,  or  the  equally 
grateful  nectar,  right  from  the  extractor,  is  certainly  a  bless- 
ing of  no  mean  order.  We  may  thus  supply  our  families  and 
friends  with  a  food  element,  with  no  cloud  of  fear  from  vile, 
poisonous  adulterations.     We  now  know  that  if  we  eat  cane. 


20  THB   BKB-KKKPBR'S   GriDB; 

sng-ar — the  common  sug^j  of  our  tables — it  is  converted  by  the 
digestive  fliiids  into  a  g-lncose-like  sug-ar,  which  is  probably 
neaxlj  or  quite   identical   with   honey-sug-ar.     The  bees  do  the 

same  with  the  nectar,  which  is  dilute  cane-sug-ar,  of  flowers. 
Thus  we  may  reason  that  honey  is  our  most  wholesome  sugur, 
for  here  the  bees  have  in  part  digested  our  food  for  us. 

BRTSGS  THE  5EC0>"T>  BLA-DK  OF  GRASS. 
We  now  know  that  bees  do  most  valuable  work  in  pollina- 
ting the  fruit-blossoms.  No  orchard  will  g-ive  full  fruitag-e 
without  the  visits  of  nectar-loving  insects.  Of  these  valued 
friends,  no  other  is  at  all  comparable  to  the  honey-bee,  in  the 
value  of  its  service.  I  know  of  California  orchards  whose 
productiveness  has  been  immensely  increased  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  an  apiary.  Every  orchard  should  have  an  apiary  in  it^ 
near  vicinity. 

ADDS   TO   THE   XATIOK'S   WEALTH, 

An  excellent  authority  placed  the  number  of  colonies  of 
bees  in  the  United  States,  in  1^1,  at  3,0(X),000,  and  the  honey- 
production  for  that  year  at  more  than  20,000,000  pounds.  The 
production  for  that  year  was  not  up  to  the  average,  and  yet 
the  cash  value  of  the  year's  honey  crop  exceeded  $50,000,000. 
We  may  safely  add  as  much  more  as  the  value  of  the  increase 
of  colonies,  and  we  have  a  grand  total  of  $50,000,000— nearly 
enough  to  pay  the  interest  on  the  national  debt,  were  the  bonds 
all  refunded.  Mr.  Root,  in  his  excellent  "  A  B  Cof  Bee-Cul- 
ture," estimates,  from  sections  sold,  that  125  million  pounds 
of  honey  are  produced  annually  and  sold  for  SlO,iDOO,000.  And 
yet  all  this  is  but  gathered  nectar,  which  would  go  to  waste 
were  it  not  for  the  apiarist  and  his  bees.  We  thus  save  to  the 
country  that  which  would  otherwise  be  a  total  loss.  Apicul- 
ture, then,  in  adding  so  immensely  to  the  productive  capital  of 
the  country,  is  worthy,  as  an  art,  to  receive  the  encouragement 
and  fostering  care  of  the  State.  And  the  thought  that  he  is 
performrng  substantial  service  to  the  State,  may  well  add  to 
the  pleasure  of  the  apiarist,  as  he  performs  his  daily  round  of 
labor.  When  we  add  to  this  the  vastly  greater  indirect  benefit 
which  comes  through  the  agency  of  bees  in  fertilizing  flowers 
—a  benefit  which  can  hardly  be  computed— we  then  understand 


OR,    MAKTAX   OF  THE   APIAKY.  21 

the  immense  value  which  comes  from  bees.  Truly,  the  bee- 
keeper may  feel  proud  of  the  grand  part  which  his  bees  per- 
form in  the  economy  of  that  part  of  nature  which  most  con- 
cerns man  and  most  generously  ministers  to  man's  wants. 

WHAT  SUCCESSFUIv  BEE-KEEPING  REQUIRES. 

MENTAL   EFFORT. 

No  one  should  commence  this  business  who  is  not  willing 
to  read,  think,  and  study.  To  be  sure,  the  ignorant  and  un- 
thinking may  stumble  on  success  for  a  time,  but  sooner  or 
later  failure  will  set  her  seal  upon  their  efforts.  Those  of  oar 
apiarists  who  have  studied  the  hardest,  observed  the  closest, 
and  thought  the  deepest,  have  even  passed  the  late  terrible 
winter  with  but  slight  loss.  Those  who  fail,  often  fail  because 
of  just  this  lack  of  mental  preparation. 

Of  course  the  novice  will  ask,  "How  and  what  shall  I 
study  ?" 

EXPESIEXCE   NECESSARY. 

Nothing  will  take  the  place  of  real  experienr- .  Commence 
with  a  few  colonies,  even'  one  or  two  is  best,  and  make  the 
bees  your  companions  at  every  possible  opportunity.  Note 
every  change,  whether  of  the  bees,  their  development,  or  work, 
and  then  by  earnest  thought  strive  to  divine  the  cause. 

LEARN  FROM  OTHERS. 
Great  good  will  also  come  from  visiting  and  even  working 
for  a  time  with  other  bee-keepers.  Note  their  methods,  hives, 
sections,  etc.  Strive  by  conversation  to  gain  new  and  valuable 
ideas,  and  gratefully  adopt  whatever  is  found,  by  comparison, 
to  be  an  improvement  upon  your  own  past  system  and  practice. 

AID   FROM   CONVENTIONS. 

Attend  conventions  whenever  distance  and  means  render 
this  possible.  Here  you  will  not  only  be  made  better  by  social 
intercourse  with  those  whose  occupation  and  study  make  them 
sympathetic  and  congenial,  but  you  will  find  a  real  conserva- 
tory of  scientific  truths,  valuable  hints,  and  improved  instru- 
ments and  methods.    And  the  apt  attention— rendered  possi- 


22  THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 

ble  by  your  own  experience — which  you  will  give  to  essays, 
discussions,  and  private  conversations,  will  so  enrich  your 
mind  that  you  will  return  to  your  home  encouraged  and  able 
to  do  better  work,  and  to  achieve  higher  success.  I  have 
attended  nearly  all  the  meetings  of  the  Michigan  Bee-Keepers' 
Association,  many  of  those  of  California,  and  several  of  the 
meetings  of  the  National  Bee-Keepers'  Association,  and  never 
yet  when  I  was  not  well  paid  for  all  trouble  and  expense  by  the 
many,  often  very  valuable,  suggestions  which  I  received. 

AID   FROM    BEE-PERIODICALS. 

Every  apiarist  should  take  and  read  at  least  one  of  the 
many  excellent  bee-periodicals  that  are  issued  in  our  country. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  Francis  Ruber's  blindness  was  an 
advantage  to  him,  as  he  thus  had  the  assistance  of  two  pairs 
of  eyes,  his  wife's  and  servant's,  instead  of  one.  So,  too,  of 
the  apiarist  who  reads  the  bee-publications.  He  has  the  aid  of 
the  eyes,  and  the  brains,  of  hundreds  of  intelligent  and  observ- 
ing bee-keepers.  Who  is  it  that  squanders  his  money  on  worse 
than  useless  patents  and  fixtures  ?  He  who  "  can  not  afford'''' 
to  take  a  bee-paper. 

It  would  be  invidious  and  uncalled  for  to  recommend  any 
one  of  these  valuable  papers  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others. 
Kach  has  its  peculiar  excellencies,  and  all  who  can  may  well 
call  to  his  aid  two  or  more  of  them. 

American  Bee  Journal. — This  is  the  oldest  American 
bee-paper,  and  the  only  weekly  journal  devoted  exclusively  to 
bee-keeping  in  the  United  States.  It  was  founded  in  1861,  by 
the  late  Samuel  "Wagner,  whose  breadth  of  culture,  strength  of 
judgment,  and  practical  and  historical  knowledge  of  bee- 
keeping, were  remarkable.  Even  to-day  those  early  volumes  of 
this  paper  are  very  valuable  parts  of  any  bee-keeper's  library. 
Under  the  able  management  of  Mr.  Thomas  G.  Newman,  the 
late  editor,  the  paper  made  great  and  continuous  advancement. 
The  contributors  to  the  "American  Bee  Journal  "  are  the  suc- 
cessful bee-keepers  of  America,  and  so  it  has  a  wide  influ- 
ence. It  is  now  edited  by  George  W.  York,  whose  skill,  enter- 
prise, and  ability,  are  no  whit  behind  those  who  founded  and 
raised  this  journal  to  its  present  proud  place.    The  publishers 


OR,    MANUAI,   OF   THE    APIARY.  23 

are  George  W.  York  &  Co.,  118  Michigan   St.,  Chicago,  111. 
Subscription  price,  $1.00  a  year. 

Gi^KANiNGS  IN  Bke-Culturk.— This  semi-monthly  journal, 
which  has  just  completed  its  28th  volume,  has  shown  great 
vigor  and  energy  from  its  very  birth.  Its  editor  is  an  active 
apiarist,  who  is  constantly  experimenting  ;  a  terse,  able  writer, 
and  brimful  of  good-nature  and  enthusiasm.  I  am  free  to  say 
that  in  practical  apiculture  I  am  more  indebted  to  Mr.  A.  f. 
Root  than  to  any  other  one  person,  except  Rev.  h.  L.  Lang- 
stroth.  I  also  think  that,  with  few  exceptions,  he  has  done 
more  for  the  recent  advancement  of  practical  apiculture  than 
any  other  person  in  our  country  or  the  world.  This  sprightly 
and  beautifully  illustrated  journal  is  edited  by  E.  R.  Root,  Me- 
dina, Ohio.     Price,  $1.00  a  year. 

Canadian  Bee  Journai,.  —  This  excellent  periodical, 
though  published  across  the  line,  is  worthy  of  high  praise  and 
patronage.  Mr.  D.  A.  Jones  was  its  founder,  and  his  ability, 
enterprise,  and  long  and  successful  experience  gave  this  paper 
great  prestige.  Perhaps  no  bee-keeper  in  the  world  has  sacri- 
ficed more  in  the  way  of  time  and  money,  and  received  less  for 
it,  than  has  Mr.  Jones,  This  is  a  monthly  journal,  and  is  pub- 
lished by  the  Goold,  Shapley  &  Muir  Co.,  Ltd.,  Brantford,  Ont., 
at  $1.00  a  year.     W.  J.  Craig  is  its  editor. 

Bee-Keepers'  Review.— Although  the  Bee-Keepers'  Re- 
view has  less  of  years,  it  is  already  away  up  to  the  front,  and 
an  indispensable  adjunct  to  every  live  apiarist.  Its  success 
has  been  quite  phenomenal.  The  ability,  energy,  and  success- 
ful experience  of  the  editor,  both  as  a  writer  and  as  a  bee- 
keeper, fit  him  most  admirably  for  his  work.  Not  only  has  he 
won  success  in  all  departments  of  bee-keeping,  but  he  has  long 
been  esteemed  as  one  of  the  most  able  of  our  American  apicul- 
tural  writers.  Published  by  W.  Z.  Hutchinson,  Flint,  Mich., 
at  $1.00  a  year. 

American  Bee-Keeper.— The  ability,  enterprise  and  long 
and  successful  experience  of  Harry  E.  Hill,  editor  of  this  paper, 
are  all  well-known.  It  is  a  20-page  monthly  magazine,  neatly 
edited  and  well  illustrated.  It  is  published  by  W.  T.  Falconer 
Mfg.  Co.,  Jamestown,  N..  Y.,  at  50  cents  a  year. 


24  THE  BKK-KKEPBR'S   GUIDE  ; 

Progressive  Bee-Keeper.— This  is  one  of  the  later  bee- 
papers,  but  it  shows  wonderful  progress  and  great  promise  of 
usefulness.  Its  present  editor,  R.  B.  L,eahy,  is  noted  for  his 
ability,  enterprise  and  pushing  business  ways.  It  is  published 
monthly  by  L/eahy  Mfg.  Co.,  Higginsville,  Mo.  Price,  SO  cents 
a  year. 

Lone  Star  Apiarist.— This  latest  journal  is  edited  by 
Louis  Scholl,  and  is  published  monthly  by  The  Lone  Star  Api- 
arist Pub.  Co.,  of  Floresville,  Tex.  It  shows  vigor  and  gives 
promise  of  long  life  and  great  usefulness.  Its  locality  is  very 
fortunate.     Price,  $1.00  a  year. 

BOOKS   FOR   THE   APIARIST. 

Having  read  many  of  the  books  treating  of  apiculture, 
American  and  foreign,  I  can  freely  recommend  such  a  course 
to  others.  Each  book  has  peculiar  excellencies,  and  may  be 
read  with  interest  and  profit. 

Langstroth  ON  THE  Honey-Bee. — This  treatise  will  ever 
remain  a  classic  in  bee-literature.  I  can  not  over-estimate  the 
benefits  which  I  have  received  from  a  study  of  its  pages.  The 
style  of  this  work  is  so  admirable,  the  subject-matter  so  replete 
with  interest,  and  the  entire  book  so  entertaining,  that  it  is  a 
desirable  addition  to  any  library,  and  no  thoughtful,  studious 
apiarist  can  well  be  without  it.  It  is  especially  happy  in  detail- 
ing the  work  of  experimentation,  and  in  showing  with  what 
caution  the  true  scientist  establishes  principles  or  deduces  con- 
clusions. The  work  is  wonderfully  free  from  errors,  and  had 
the  science  and  practice  of  apiculture  remained  stationary, 
there  would  have  been  little  need  of  another  work.  We  are 
happy  to  state,  however,  that  this  work  is  now  revised  by  no 
less  able  authorities  than  Chas.  Dadant  &  Son,  which  places  it 
high  among  our  bee-books  of  to-day.     Price,  $1.25. 

A  B  C  OF  Bee-Culture. — This  work  is  by  the  editor  of 
"  Gleanings  in  Bee-Culture."  It  is  arranged  in*  the  convenient 
form  of  our  cyclopedias,  is  printed  in  fine  style,  on  beautiful 
paper,  and  is  very  fully  illustrated.  I  need  hardly  say  that  the 
style  is  pleasing  and  vigorous.  The  subject  matter  is  fresh, 
and  embodies  the  most  recent  discoveries  and  inventions  per- 
taining to  bee-keeping.    Price,  $1.20. 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF  THE   APIARY.  25 

Bees  and  Honey.— This  work  is  by  Thomas  G.  Newman, 
late  editor  of  the  "American  Bee  Journal."  It  is  small,  but 
contains  an  epitome  of  the  science  and  art  of  bee-culture. 
Price,  75  cents. 

Scientific  Queen-Rearing.— This  work  is  by  that  well- 
known  and  thoroughly  practical  bee-keeper,  G.  M.  Doolittle. 
It  is  invaluable,  treating-,  as  it  does,  of  a  method  by  which  the 
very  best  queen-bees  are  reared  in  accord  with  nature's  way. 
Price,  $1.00. 

Advanced  Bee-Culttjre.— This  is  a  full  and  plain  expla- 
nation of  the  successful  methods  practiced  by  the  author,  W. 
Z.  Hutchinson.     Price,  50  cents. 

Bee-Keeping  for  Beginners.— By  Dr.  J.  P.  H.  Brown,  of 
Georgia,  is  a  practical  and  condensed  treatise  on  the  honey- 
bee.    110  pages,  bound  in  paper.     Price,  50  cents. 

foreign  pubi,ications. 

The  British  Bee  Journal,  as  the  exponent  of  British 
methods  and  practices,  is  interesting  and  valuable  to  Ameri- 
can bee-keepers.  It  shows  that  in  many  things,  as  in  the 
method  of  organizing  and  conducting  conventions,  so  as  to 
make  them  highly  conducive  to  apicultural  progress,  we  have 
much  to  learn  from  our  brothers  in  Britain.  The  editor  is  one 
of  the  best  informed  bee-keepers  of  the  world.  The  best  way 
for  Americans  to  secure  this  journal  is  through  the  editors  of 
our  American  bee-papers. 

foreign  books. 

The  best  of  these,  indeed  one  of  the  best  ever  published, 
is  The  Honey-Bee,  by  Thomas  W.  Cowan,  of  I^ondon,  Eng- 
land. It  is  the  recognized  authority  in  Europe,  as  it  may  well 
be.  It  is  not  only  beautiful,  but  full,  accurate,  and  scientific 
As  a  history  of  scientific  discovery  in  relation  to  bees,  it  is  of 
special  interest.  It  deserves  a  place  in  every  bee-keeper's 
library.     Price,  $1.00. 

A  more  pretentious  book  is  Bees  and  Bee-Keeping,  by 
Frank  Cheshire.  In  workmanship  and  illustration  it  is  most 
admirable.     It  is  a  compilation  from  Schiemenz,  Girard,  Wollf, 


26  THB  bee-keeper's  guide; 

and  others.  Many  of  the  pages  and  many  of  the  finest  illus- 
trations are  taken  bodily,  and,  we  are  pained  to  say,  with  no 
credit.  As  we  should  expect,  the  work  is  not  as  reliable  as  the 
smaller  work  of  Mr.  Cowan.     Price,  S5.50. 

As  practical  guides,  I  do  not  think  the  foreign  works  supe- 
rior to  our  own.  Indeed,  I  think  the  beginner  would  profit 
most  by  studying  our  American  books.  The  advanced  bee- 
keeper will  gain  much  in  discipline  and  knowledge  by  a  care- 
ful reading  of  the  foreign  works  on  bee-keeping.  Foreign  sci- 
entists, especially  the  Germans,  are  at  the  head,  but  no  nation 
is  quicker  to  discern  the  practical  bearing  and  utilize  the  facts 
and  discoveries  in  science  than  are  Americans.  The  Germans 
had  hardly  shown  how  centrifugal  force  could  be  used  to  sepa- 
rate honey  from  the  comb  before  the  Americans  had  given  us 
our  beautiful  extractors.  The  same  is  true  of  comb-foundation 
machines.  The  Germans  pointed  out  the  true  nature  of  "  foul 
brood,"  and  discovered  the  germicides  for  its  cure,  yet  I  believe 
ten  times  as  many  Americans  as  foreigners  profit  by  this 
knowledge. 

PROMPTITUDE. 

Another  absolute  requirement  of  successful  bee-keeping  is 
prompt  attention  to  all  its  varied  duties.  Neglect  is  the  rock 
on  which  many  bee-keepers,  especially  farmers,  find  too  often 
they  have  wrecked  their  success.  I  have  no  doubt  that  more 
colonies  die  from  starvation  than  from  all  the  bee-maladies 
known  to  the  bee-keeper.  And  why  is  this  ?  Neglect  is  the 
apicide.  I  feel  sure  that  the  loss  each  season  by  absconding 
colonies  is  almost  incalculable,  and  what  mast  we  blame  ? 
Neglect.  The  loss  every  summer  by  enforced  idleness  of 
queen  and  workers,  just  because  room  is  denied  them,  is  very 
great.  Who  is  the  guilty  party  ?  Plainly,  Neglect.  If  we 
would  be  successful.  Promptitude  must  be  our  motto.  Each 
colony  of  bees  requires  but  very  little  care  and  attention.  Our 
every  interest  requires  that  this  be  not  denied,  nor  even 
granted  grudgingly.  The  very  fact  that  this  attention  is 
slight,  renders  it  more  liable  to  be  neglected  ;  but  this  neglect 
always  involves  loss — often  disaster.  True,  with  thought  and 
management  the  time  for  this  care  can  be  arranged  at  pleasure 
and  the  amount  greatly  lessened,  but  the  care  must  never  be 
neglected. 


OR,  MANUAi.  o?  The  apiary.  27 


ENTHUSIASM. 


Enthusiasm,  or  an  ardent  love  of  its  duties,  is  a  very  desir- 
able, if  not  an  absolute,  requisite  to  successful  apiculture.  To 
be  sure,  this  is  a  quality  whose  growth,  with  only  slight  oppor- 
tunity, is  almost  sure.  It  only  demands  perseverance.  The 
beginner,  without  either  experience  or  knowledge,  may  meet 
with  discouragements— unquestionably  will.  Swarms  will  be 
lost,  colonies  will  fail  to  winter,  and  the  young  apiarist  will 
become  nervous,  which  fact  will  be  noted  by  the  bees  with 
great  disfavor,  and,  if  opportunity  permits,  will  meet  reproof 
more  sharp  than  pleasant.  Yet,  with  persistence,  all  these 
difficulties  quickly  vanish.  Every  contingency  will  be  fore- 
seen and  provided  against,  and  the  myriad  of  little  workers 
will  become  as  manageable  and  may  be  fondled  as  safely  as  a 
pet  dog  or  cat,  and  the  apiarist  will  minister  to  their  needs 
with  the  same  fearlessness  and  self-possession  that  he  does  to 
his  gentlest  cow  or  favorite  horse.  Persistence,  in  the  face  oj 
all  these  discouragements  which  are  so  sure  to  confront  inex- 
perience, will  surely  triumph.  In  sooth,  he  who  appreciates 
the  beautiful  and  marvelous,  will  soon  grow  to  love  his  com- 
panions of  the  hive,  and  the  labor  attendant  upon  their  care 
and  management.  Nor  will  this  love  abate  until  it  has  been 
kindled  into  enthusiasm. 

True,  there  may  be  successful  apiarists  who  are  impelled 
by  no  warmth  of  feeling,  whose  superior  intelligence,  system 
and  promptitude,  stand  in  lieu  of,  and  make  amends  for,  ab- 
sence of  enthusiasm.  Yet  I  believe  such  are  rare,  and  cer- 
tainly they  work  at  great  disadvantage. 


PART  FIEST. 


NATURAL  HISTORY 


OF  THE 

HONEY-BEE. 


Natural  History  of  the  Honey^Bee. 

CHAPTER  L 

THE  BEE'S  PLACE  IN  THE  ANIMAL 
KINGDOM. 

It  is  estimated  by  eminent  naturalists  that  there  are  more 
than  1,000,000  species  of  living  animals.  It  will  be  both  inter- 
esting and  profitable  to  look  in  upon  this  vast  host,  that  we 
may  know  the  position  and  relationship  of  the  bee  to  all  this 
mighty  concourse  of  life. 

BRANCH  OF  THB   HONEY-BBE. 

The  great  Freqch*,  haturalisj,' Cuvier,  a  cotemporary  of 
Napoleon  I,  grouped  3l^  anim^vwh;.ch  exhibit  a  ring  struc- 
ture into  one  bracu;Hi:ai)propriitely;.4anied  Articulates,  as  this 
term  indicates,  ,t;he/jbinted  or  articaiiiigti  structure  which  so 
obviously  characterizes  most  of  the  members  of  this  group. 

The  terms  "joint "  and  "  articulation,"  a&  used  here,  have 
a  technical  meaning.  They  refer  not  to  4he.  hinge  or  place  of 
union  of  two  pants,  but  to  the  parts  themselves.  Thus,  the 
parts  of  an  insfSl's legs  are  styled  "  jointlii^  "  articulations." 
All  aplaristii  ^^holiave  examined  caraffcUythe  structure  of  a 
bee,  will  at  onq«"giX)no,unce  it  an^  Articulatfe.  Not  only  is  its 
body,  even  froraJhead^tosti<ng,'cbm^'5ed  of 'joints,  but  by  close 
inspection  we  find 'the  legs,  the  Vntekbce,  and  even  the  mouth- 
parts,  likewise  jointed. 

The  worms,  too,  are  Articulates,  though  in  some  of  these, 
as  the  leech,  the  joints  are  very  obscure.  The  bee,  then,  which 
gives  us  food,  is  distantly  related-to  the  dreaded  tape-worm, 
with  its  hundreds  of  joints,  which,  mayhaps,  robs  us  of  the 
same  food  after  we  have  eaten  it ;  and  to  the  terrible  pork- 
worm,  or  trichina,  which  may  consume  the  very  muscles  we 
have  developed  in  caring  for  our  pets  of  the  apiary. 

In  classifying  animals,  the  zoologist  has  regard  not  only 
to  the  morphology— the  gross  anatomy—but  also   to  the  em- 


32  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

bryology,  or  style  of  development  before  birth  or  hatching. 
On  both  embryological  and  morphological  grounds,  Huxley 
and  other  recent  authors  are  more  than  warranted  in  separa- 
ting the  Vermes,  or  worms,  from  the  Articulates  of  Cuvier  as  a 
separate  phylum.  The  remaining  classes  are  now  included  in 
the  branch  Arthropoda.  This  term,  which  means  jointed  feet, 
is  most  appropriate,  as  all  of  the  insects  and  their  allies  have 
jointed  feet,  while  the  worms  are  without  such  members. 

The  body-rings  of  these  animals  form  a  skeleton,  firm,  as 
in  the  bee  and  lobster,  or  more  or  less  soft,  as  in  most  larvae. 
The  hardness  of  the  crust  is  due  to  the  deposit  within  it  of  a 
hard  substance  called  chitine,  and  the  firmness  of  the  in- 
sect's body  varies  simply  with  the  amount  of  this  chitine. 
This  skeleton,  unlike  that  of  Vertebrates,  or  back-bone  ani- 
mals, to  which  man  belongs,  is  outside,  and  thus  serves  to  pro- 
t^t  the  inner,  softer  parts,  as  well  as  to  give  them  attach- 
ment, and  to  give  strength  and  solidity  to  the  animal. 

This  ring  structuie^  so'  beautifully  marked  in  our  golden- 
banded  Italians,  usually,  jaakesil  easy  tc  separate,  at  sight, 
animals  of  this  branch  from  the  Vertebrates,  with  their  usually 
bony  skeleton  ;  from  the  less  active  MoUuccan  branch,  with 
their  soft,  sack-like  bodies,  familiar  to  us  in  the  snail,  the 
clam,  the  oyster,  a^d  the  wonderful  cuttle-fish— the  devil-fish 
of  Victor  Hugo — w*i\h  its  long,  clammy  arms,  str?.nge  ink-bag, 
and  often  prodigiof  c'^  size  ;  from  the  branch  Echmodermata, 
with  its  graceful,  strti"  fish  and  sea-stars,  and  elep.ant  sea-lilies  ; 
from  the  Coelenterata  with  its  delicate  butg-audy  jelly-fish,  and 
coral  animals,  the  <;iiiy'.atGhitect&  of  islai.'ds\and  even  conti- 
nents ;  from  the  lowly  Fbrife'ra  or  sponges  which  seem  so  little 
like  an  animal;  and  from 'the  lowest, '  simplest.  Protozoan 
branch,  which  includes  animals  often  so  minute  that  we  often 
owe  our  very  knowledge  of  them  to  the  microscope,  and  so 
simple  that  they  have  been  regarded  as  Jhe  bond  which  unites 
plants  with  animals. 

CLASS  OF  THE  HONEY-BEE. 

The  honey-bee  belongs  to  the  class  Hexapoda,  or  true  in- 
sects. The  first  term  is  appropriate,  as  all  have  in  the  imago, 
or  last  stage,  six  legs.    Nor  is  the  second  term  less  applicable. 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THR   APIARY. 


33 


as  the  word  "  insect  "  comes  from  the  Latin,  and  means  to 
cut  in,  and  in  no  other  Arthropod  does  the  ring--structure  ap- 
pear  so  marked  upon  merely  a  superficial  examination.  More 
than  this,  the  true  insects  when  fully  developed  have,  unlike  all 
other  Arthropods,  three  well-marked  divisions  of  the  body, 
Fig.  1. 


Respiratory  Apparatus  of  Bee,  magnified— After  Ihmcan. 

a  Head,  h  Thorax,   c  Abdomen,  d  Antennae,  e  Compound  Eyes,   f  Air-sacs 
qy'  g''  Legs,/'  Tracheae.  ' 

(Fig.  1),  namely  :  the  head  (Fig-.  1,  a),  which  contains  the  an- 
tennae (Fig-.  1,  rf),  the  horn-like  appendages  common  to  all 
insects;  eyes  (Fig.  1,  e),  and  mouth  organs  ;  the  thorax  (Fig. 
1,  b),  which  bears  the  legs  (Fig.  1,  g),  and  wings,  when  they 
are  present ;  and  lastly,  the  abdomen  (Fig.  1,  c),  which,  though 


34  THE  bee-keeper's  GmcE ; 

usually  without  appendages,  contains  the  ovipositor,  and, 
when  present,  the  sting.  Insects  undergo  a  more  striking 
metamorphosis  than  do  most  other  animals.  When  first 
hatched  they  are  worm-like,  and  called  "larv^  "  (Fig.  39,y), 
which  means  masked;  afterward  they  are  frequently  quies- 
cent, and  would  hardly  be  supposed  to  be  animals  at  all.  They 
are  then  known  as  pupas  (Fig.  39,  g).  At  last  there  comes  forth 
the  mature  insect  or  imago  (Fig.  1),  with  compound  eyes, 
antennas  and  wings.  In  some  insects  the  transformations  are 
said  to  be  incomplete,  that  is,  the  larva,  pupa,  and  imago  differ 
little  except  in  size,  and  that  the  latter  possesses  wings.  The 
larvae  and  pupae  of  such  insects  are  known  as  nymphs.  We  see 
in  our  bugs,  lice,  locusts  and  grasshoppers,  illustrations  of 
insects  with  incomplete  transformations.  In  such  cases  there 
is  a  marked  resemblance  from  the  newly-hatched  larva  to  the 
adult. 

The  other  classes  of  the  phylum  Arthropoda,  are  the  Crus- 
tacea, Myriapoda,  and  Arachnoidea.  The  Crustaceans  include 
the  jolly  cray-fish  and  the  lobster,  so  indifferent  as  to  whether 
they  move  forward,  backward  or  sidewise  ;  the  shorter  crab,  the 
sow-bug,  lively  and  plump,  even  in  its  dark,  damp  home  under 
old  boards  ;  and  the  barnacles,  which  fasten  to  the  bottom  of 
ships,  so  that  vessels  are  often  freighted  with  life,  without,  as 
well  as  within. 

The  myropods  are  the  so-called  "Thousand-I^egged  Worms." 
These  are  wormlike  in  form.  The  body  is  hardly  differentiated 
at  all.  The  name  comes  from  the  numerous  legs,  which 
though  never  a  thousand  may  reach  one-fourth  that  number. 
Myriapods  have  only  simple  eyes,  and  all  have  antennas.  Of 
the  Myriapoda  the  Millipeds  have  numerous  segments,  often 
as  many  as  sixty,  have  four  legs  to  each  joint,  are  cylindrical, 
and  are  often  pests  in  the  garden,  as  they  are  vegetable  eaters. 
The  Centipeds  have  fewer  joints,  may  be  no  more  than  thirty, 
only  one  pair  of  legs  to  each  segment,  and  feed  on  insects,  etc. 
Their  bite  is  venomous,  and  the  bite  of  the  larger  ones  may 
prove  harmful  even  to  man  himself. 

The  Class  Arachnida  includes  the  spider  group.  These 
animals  all  have,  when  mature,  eight  legs.  They  never  have 
but  two  parts  to    the  body,  the  head-thorax  and  abdomen. 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF  THE   APIARY.  35 

Their  eyes  are  simple,  and  they  are  without  antennae.  The 
wee  mites  belong  here.  They  have  hardly  any  divisions  to  the 
body.  The  mouth-parts  form  a  mere  portico.  When  first 
hatched  they  have  only  six  legs.  The  so-called  red  spider  (red 
mite),  so  destructive  in  the  orchard,  belongs  here,  as  do  also  the 
sugar,  cheese,  flour,  and  chicken  mites.  The  ticks  are  but 
colossal  mites.  Of  these,  the  Texas  Cattle  Tick  (Boophilus 
bovis)  causes  the  Texas  fever  in  cattle.  The  cause  of  the 
fever  is  a  protozoan  animal,  Pyrosoma  bigeminum.  This  is 
in  the  blood  of  Texas  cattle,  but  is  harmless.  Carried  by  the 
tick  to  other  cattle,  it  brings  disease  and  death.  The  scorpions 
are  also  Arachnids.  One  of  these  stings  as  does  the  bee,  and 
the  sting  is  often  quite  venomous.  The  whip  scorpion  of 
Florida  is  named  from  its  caudal  appendages.  It  is  entirely 
harmless.  The  Datames,  which  I  call  the  "  California  bee- 
killer"  (Fig.  292),  and  which  is  described  among  the  bee- 
enemies,  belongs  here.  Grandfather  Graybeard  also  belongs 
in  the  scorpion  order.  It  is  only  useful  in  pointing  the  way  to 
lost  cows,  etc.  Its  legs  point  every  way.  The  spiders  are  the 
highest  Arachnids.  They  differ  from  mites  in  possessing 
two  well-marked  divisions  of  the  body,  and  in  always  having 
eight  legs,  and  from  the  scorpions  in  never  having  the  abdo- 
men jointed.  The  spiders  have  a  poisonous  bite,  but  rarely 
inflict  injury  to  man.  Their  silk  and  spinning  habits  are 
exceedingly  interesting.  Spiders  are  almost  as  marvelous  in 
their  life  history  as  are  the  bees.  Like  the  Datames,  to  be 
spoken  of  as  a  bee-enemy,  spiders  often  kill  our  pets  of  the 
hive. 

ORDER  OF  THE  HONEY-BEE. 
The  honey-bee  belongs  to  the  order  Hymenoptera  (from  two 
Greek  words  meaning  membrane  and  wing),  which  also  in- 
cludes the  wasps,  ants,  ichneumon-flies,  gall-flies,  and  saw- 
flies.  This  group  contains  insects  which  possess  a  tongue  by 
which  they  may  suck  (Figs.  16  and  54),  and  strong  jaws  (Fig. 
65)  for  biting.  Thus,  the  bees  can  sip  the  honeyed  sweets  of 
flowers,  and  also  gnaw  away  mutilated  comb.  They  have, 
besides,  four  wings,  and  undergo  complete  transformations. 

There  are  among   insects  strange  resemblances.    Insects 
of  one  order  will  show  a  marked  likeness  to  those  of  another. 


36  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

This  Is  known  as  mimicry,  and  sometimes  is  wondeffuiry 
striking  between  very  distant  groups.  Darwin  and  Wallace 
have  shown  this  to  be  a  developed  peculiarity,  not  always  pos- 
sessed by  the  ancestors  of  the  animal,  and  that  it  comes 
through  the  laws  of  variation  and  natural  selection  to  serve 
the  purpose  of  protection.  Right  here  we  have  a  fine  illustra- 
tion of  this  mimicry.  Just  the  other  day  I  received,  through 
Mr.  A.  I.  Root,  an  insect  which  he  and  the  person  sending  it 
to  him  supposed  to  be  a  bee,  and  he  desired  to  know  whether 
it  was  a  malformed  honey-bee,  or  some  other  species.  This 
insect,  though  looking  in  a  general  way  much  like  a  bee,  had 
only  two  wings,  had  no  jaws,  and  its  antennas  were  close  to- 
gether in  front,  and  mere  stubs.  In  fact,  it  was  no  bee  at  all, 
but  belonged  to  the  order  Diptera,  or  two-winged  flies.  I  have 
received  several  similar  insects,  with  like  inquiries.  Among 
Diptera  there  are  several  families,  as  the  CEstridae,  or  bot-flies, 
some  of  the  Asilidae,  or  robber-flies  (Fig.  268),  which  are  often 
fierce  enemies  of  our  bees,  the  Syrphidae — a  very  useful  fam- 
ily, as  the  larvae  or  maggots  often  live  on  plant-lice — whose 
members  are  often  seen  sipping  sweets  from  flowers,  or  trying 
to  rob  the  honey  from  other  bees — the  one  referred  to  above 
belonged  to  this  family— and  the  Bombyliidae,  which  in  color, 
form,  and  hairy  covering,  are  strikingly  like  wild  and  domes- 
ticated bees.  The  maggots  of  some  of  these  feed  on  the  larvae 
of  various  of  our  wild  bees,  and  of  course  the  mother  fly  must 
steal  into  the  nests  of  the  latter  to  lay  her  eggs.  So  in  these 
cases  there  is  seeming  evidence  that  the  mimicry  may  serve  to 
protect  these  fly-tramps  as  they  steal  in  to  pilfer  the  coveted 
sweets,  or  lay  the  fatal  eggs.  Possibly,  too,  they  may  have  a 
protective  scent,  as  they  have  been  seen  to  enter  a  hive  in 
safety,  though  a  bumble-bee  essaying  to  do  the  same  found 
the  way  barricaded  with  myriad  simitars,  each  with  a  poisoned 
tip. 

Some  authors  have  placed  Coleoptera,  or  beetles,  as  the 
highest  of  insects,  others  claim  for  Lepidoptera,  or  butter-flies 
and  moths,  a  first  place,  while  others,  and  with  the  best  of 
reasons,  claim  for  Hymenoptera  the  highest  position.  The 
larger  brain,  wondrous  habits,  and  marvelous  differentiation 
of  mouth-organs,  legs,  etc.,  more  than  warrant  placing  them 


OR,   MANTJAl,  OF  THE  APIARY.  37 

at  the  head.  The  moth  is  admired  for  the  glory  of  its  coloring 
and  elegance  of  its  form,  and  the  beetle  for  the  luster  and 
brilliancy  of  its  elytra,  or  wing-covers  ;  but  these  insects  only 
revel  in  Nature's  wealth,  and  live  and  die  without  labor  or  pur- 
pose. Hymenoptera,  usually  less  gaudy,  often  quite  plain  and 
unattractive  in  color,  are  yet  the  most  highly  endowed  among 
insects.  They  live  with  a  purpose  in  view,  and  are  the  best 
models  of  industry  to  be  found  among  animals.  Our  bees 
practice  a  division  of  labor ;  the  ants  are  still  better  political 
economists,  as  they  have  a  specially  endowed  class  in  the  com- 
munity which  are  the  soldiers,  and  thus  are  the  defenders  of 
each  ant-kingdom.  Ants  also  conquer  other  communities,  take 
their  inhabitants  captive,  and  reduce  them  to  abject  slavery- 
requiring  them  to  perform  a  large  portion,  and  sometimes  the 
whole,  of  the  labor  of  the  community.  Ants  tunnel  under 
streams,  and  in  the  tropics  some  leaf-eating  species  have  been 
observed  to  show  no  mean  order  of  intelligence,  as  some  ascend 
trees  to  cut  oflF  the  leafy  twigs,  while  others  remain  below  and 
carry  these  branches  through  their  tunnels  to  their  under- 
ground homes.  Indeed,  the  Agricultural  ant,  of  Texas, 
actually  clears  land  and  grows  a  special  kind  of  plant  on  vrhfih 
it  feeds.     {See  McCook's  Ants.) 

The  parasitic  Hymenoptera  are  so-called  because  they  lay 
their  eggs  in  other  insects,  that  their  offspring  may  have  fresh 
meat  not  only  at  birth,  but  so  long  as  they  need  food,  as  the 
insect  fed  upon  generally  lives  till  the  young  parasite,  which 
is  working  to  disembowel  it,  is  full-grown  ;  thus  this  steak  is 
ever  fresh  as  life  itself.  These  parasitic  insects  show  won- 
drous intelligence,  or  sense-development,  in  discovering  their 
prey.  I  have  caught  ichneumon-flies— a  family  of  these  para- 
sites—boring through  the  bark  and  a  thin  layer  of  solid  beech 
or  maple  wood,  and  upon  examination  I  found  the  prospective 
victim  further  on  in  direct  line  with  the  insect  auger,  which 
was  tp  intrude  the  fatal  egg.  I  have  also  watched  ichneumon- 
flies  depositing  eggs  in  leaf-rolling  caterpillars,  so  surrounded 
with  tough  hickory  leaves  that  the  fly  had  to  pierce  several 
thicknesses  to  place  the  egg  in  its  snugly-ensconced  victim. 
Upon  putting  these  leaf-rolling  caterpillars  in  a  box,  I  reared, 
of  course,  the  ichneumon-fly  and  not  the  moth.     Is  it  instinct 


3S  THE  BEK-KEEPER*S  GUIDE  ; 

or  reason  that  enables  these  flies  to  gaage  the  number  of  their 
effgs  to  the  size  of  the  larva  which  is  to  receive  them,  so  that 
there  may  be  no  danger  of  famine  and  starvation  ?  For  true 
it  is  that  while  small  caterpillars  will  receive  but  few  eggs, 
large  ones  may  receive  several.  Even  the  honey-bee  some- 
times falls  victim  to  such  parasites,  as  I  shall  show  in  speak- . 
ing  of  enemies  of  bees.  How  strange  the  habits  of  the  saw- 
fly,  with  its  wondrous  instruments,  more  perfect  than  any 
saws  of  human  workmanship,  and  the  gall-flies,  whose  poison- 
ous stings,  as  they  fasten  their  eggs  to  the  oak,  rose,  or  other 
leaves,  cause  the  abnormal  growth  of  food  for  the  still  un- 
hatched  young.  In  the  South  it  is  reported  that  bees  often 
obtain  no  small  amount  of  nectar  from  species  of  oak-galls. 

The  providing  and  caring  for  their  young,  which  are  at 
first  helpless,  is  peculiar  among  insects,  with  slight  exception, 
to  the  Hymenoptera,  and  among  all  animals  is  considered  a 
mark  of  high  rank.  Such  marvels  of  instinct,  if  we  may  not 
call  it  intelligence,  such  acumen  of  sense  perception,  such 
wonderful  habits,  all  these,  no  less  than  the  compact  structure, 
small  size  and  specialized  organs  of  nicest  finish,  more  than 
warrant  that  grand  trio  of  American  naturalists — Agassiz, 
Dana,  and  Packard — in  placing  Hymenoptera  first  in  rank 
among  insects.  As  we  shall  detail  the  structure  and  habits  of 
the  highest  of  the  high— the  bees— in  the  following  pages,  I  am 
sure  no  one  will  think  to  degrade  the  rank  of  these  wonders  of 
the  animal  kingdom. 

FAMILY  OF  THE  HONEY-BEE. 

The  honey-bee  belongs  to  the  family  Apidae,  of  Leach, 
which  includes  not  only  the  hive-bee,  but  all  insects  which 
feed  their  helpless  larvae  on  pollen,  pollen  or  honey,  or  food 
digested  \fy  the  adult  bees. 

Many  authors  separate  the  lower  bees,  principally  because 
of  their  shorter  tongues,  from  the  others,  under  the  family' 
name,  Andrenidae.  In  this  case  all  the  bees  are  grouped  as 
Mellifera  or  Anthophila  Latr.  I  shall  group  all  bees  in  the 
one  family  Apidas,  and  regard  the  Andrenae  and  their  near 
relatives  as  a  sub-family.  The  insects  of  this  family  all  have 
branched  or  plumose  hairs  on  some  portion  of  the  body,  broa4 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF  THE   APIAKY.  39 

jieads,  elbowed  antennae  (Fig.  1,  d),  which  are  thirteen  jointed 
in  the  males,  and  only  twelve  jointed  in  the  females.  The 
jaws  or  mandibles  (Pig-.  65)  are  strong  and  usually  toothed. 
The  tongue  or  ligula  is  very  long  and  slim  in  the  higher 
genera,  but  short  and  flattened  in  the  lower  ones.  The  second 
jaws  or  maxillae  (Fig.  54,  in  x)  are  long  and  prominent,  and 
ensheath  the  tongue,  with  which  they  are  folded  back  when 
not  in  use,  once  or  more  under  the  head.  All  the  insects  of 
this  family  have,  on  the  four  anterior  legs,  a  stiff  spine  on  the 
end  of  the  tibia  (Fig.  69),  the  fourth  joint  of  the  leg  from  the 
body— called  the  tibial  spur,  and  all  except  the  genus  Apis, 
which  includes  the  honey-bee,  in  which  the  posterior  legs  are 
without  tibial  spurs,  have  two  tibial  spurs  on  the  posterior 
legs.  Nearly  all  bees  (the  parasitic  genera  are  exceptions) 
have  the  first  joint  of  the  tarsus  of  the  posterior  legs  much 
broadened  (Fig.  71),  and  this,  together  with  the  broad  tibia,  is 
hollowed  out  (Fig.  70),  forming  quite  a  basin  or  basket— the 
corbicula— on  the  outer  side,  in  the  species  of  Apis  and  Bom- 
bus,  which  basket  is  deepened  by  long,  stiff  hairs.  These  re- 
ceptacles, or  pollen-baskets,  are  found  only  in  such  bees  as 
gather  much  pollen.  A  few  of  the  Apidae— thieves  by  nature— 
cuckoo-like,  steal  unbidden  into  the  nests  of  others,  and  here 
lay  their  eggs.  As  their  young  are  fed  and  fostered  by 
another,  such  bees  gather  no  pollen,  and  so,  like  drone-bees, 
need  no  organs  for  collecting  it.  These  parasites  illustrate 
mimicry,  already  described,  as  they  look  so  like  the  foster- 
mothers  of  their  own  young  that  unscientific  eyes  would  often 
fail  to  distinguish  them.  Probably  the  bees  thus  imposed 
upon  are  no  sharper,  or  they  would  refuse  ingress  to  these 
merciless  vagrants. 

The  larvae  (Fig.  39,y)  of  all  insects  of  this  family  are 
maggot-like,  wrinkled,  footless,  tapering  at  both  ends,  and,  as 
already  stated,  have  their  food  prepared  for  them.  They  are 
helpless,  and  thus  all  during  their  babyhood  (the  larva  state)— 
the  time  when  all  insects  are  most  ravenous,  and  the  only  time 
when  many  insects  take  food;  the  time  when  all  growth  in  size, 
except  such  enlargement  as  is  required  by  egg-development, 
occurs— these  infant  bees  have  to  be  fed  by  their  mothers  or 
elder  sisters.     They  have  a  mouth  with  soft  lips,  and  weak 


40  fHE  bee-keeper's  guide  ; 

jaws,  yet  it  is  doubtful  if  all  or  much  of  their  food  is  taken  in 
at  this  opening.  There  is  much  reason  to  believe  that  the 
honey-bees  especially,  like  many  maggots — such  as  the  Hes- 
sian-fly larvs — absorb  much  of  their  food  through  the  body 
walls.  From  the  mouth  leads  the  alimentary  canal,  which  has 
no  anal  opening.  So  there  are  no  excreta  other  than  gas  and 
vapor,  except  the  small  amount  which  remains  in  the  stomach 
and  intestine,  which  are  shed  with  the  skin  at  the  time  of  the 
last  molt.  What  commendation  for  their  food,  nearly  all 
capable  of  nourishment,  and  thus  assimilated  1 

To  this  family  belongs  the  genus  of  stingless  bees,  Mel- 
ipona,  of  Mexico  and  South  America,  which  store  honey  not 
only  in  the  hexagonal  brood-cells,  but  in  great  wax-reservoirs. 
They,  like  the  unkept  hive-bee,  build  in  hollow  logs.  They  are 
exceedingly  numerous  in  each  colony,  and  it  has  thus  been 
thought  that  there  was  more  than  one  queen.  They  are  also 
very  prodigal  of  wax,  and  thus  may  possess  a  prospective  com- 
mercial importance  in  these  days  of  comb  foundation.  In  this 
genus  the  basal  joint  of  the  tarsus  is  triangular,  and  there  are 
two  submarginal  cells,  not  three,  to  the  front  wings.  They 
are  also  smaller  than  our  common  bees,  and  have  wings  that 
do  not  reach  the  tip  of  their  abdomens.  Mr.  T.  F.  Bingham, 
inventor  of  the  bee-smoker,  bought  a  colony  of  the  stingless 
bees  from  Mexico  to  Michigan.  The  climate  seemed  unfavor- 
able to  them,  as  soon  the  bees  all  died.  I  now  have  some  of 
the  bees,  and  their  great  black  honey  and  pollen  cells  in  our 
museum.  The  corbicul^,  or  pollen-baakets,  are  specially  well 
marked,  and  the  posterior  tibial  spur  is  wanting  in  these  small 
bees. 

Another  genus  of  stingless  bees,  the  genus  Trigona,  have 
the  wings  longer  than  the  abdomens,  and  their  jaws  toothed. 
These,  unlike  the  Melipona,  are  not  confined  to  the  New  World, 
but  are  met  with  in  Africa,  India,  and  Australasia.  These 
build  their  combs  in  tall  trees,  fastening  them  to  the  branches 
much  as  does  the  Apis  dorsata,  soon  to  be  mentioned. 

Of  course  insects  of  the  genus  Bombus — our  common  bum- 
ble-bees— belong  to  this  family.  Here  the  tongue  is  very  long, 
the  bee  large,  and  the  sting  curved,  with  the  barbs  very  short 
and  few.     Only  the  queen  survives  the  winter.     In  spring  she 


OR,   MANUAI.   OP  THE   APIARY.  41 

forms  her  nest  under  some  sod  or  board,  often  in  a  deserted 
mouse-nest,  hollowing  out  a  basin  in  the  earth,  and  after  stor- 
ing a  mass  of  bee-bread  she  deposits  several  eggs  in  the  mass. 
The  larvae  are  soon  hatched  out  and  develop  in  large,  coarse 
cells,  not  unlike  the  queen-cells  of  our  hive-bees.  When  the 
bees  issue  from  these  cells  the  latter  are  strengthened  with 
wax,  Later  in  the  season,  these  coarse  wax-cells,  which  con- 
tain much  pollen,  become  very  numerous,  serving  both  for 
brood  and  honey.  At  first,  in  spring,  the  queen  has  all  to  do, 
hence  the  magnificent  bumble-bees,  the  queens,  seen  about  the 
lilacs  in  early  spring.  Soon  the  smaller  workers  become 
abundant,  and  relieve  the  queen,  which  then  seldom  leaves  the 
nest.  Later,  the  drones  and  the  smaller,  because  yet  unim- 
pregnated  and  non-laying,  queens  appear.  Thus,  the  bees 
correspond  with  those  of  the  hive.  The  young  queens  mate  in 
late  summer,  and  are  probably  the  only  ones  that  survive  the 
winter.  Mating  is  performed  on  the  wing.  I  once  saw  a 
queen  Bombus  fall  to  the  earth,  dragging  a  male  from  which 
she  would  have  torn  loose  had  I  not  captured  both.  The  bum- 
ble-bee drones  are  often  seen  collected  about  shady  places  at 
the  mating  season  in  August. 

Bees  of  the  genus  Xylocopa  much  resemble  bumble-bees, 
though  they  are  usually  black,  less  hairy,  and  are  our  largest 
bees.  They  have  not  the  corbicul^.  These  are  among  our 
finest  examples  of  boring  insects.  With  their  strong  biden- 
tate  jaws  they  cut  long  tunnels,  often  two  or  more  feet  long, 
in  sound  wood.  These  burrows  are  partitioned  by  chips  into 
cells,  and  in  each  cell  is  left  an  egg  and  bee-bread  for  the 
larva,  soon  to  hatch.  These  bees  do  no  slight  damage  by 
boring  into  cornices,  window-casings,  etc.,  of  houses  and  out- 
buildings. At  my  suggestion,  many  people  thus  annoyed 
have  plugged  these  tunnels  with  a  mixture  of  lard  and  kero- 
sene, and  have  speedily  driven  the  offending  bees  away.  These 
are  the  bees  which  I  have  discovered  piercing  the  base  of  long 
tubular  flowers,  like  the  wild  bergamot.  I  have  seen  honey- 
bees visiting  these  slitted  flowers,  the  nectar  of  which  was 
thus  made  accessible  to  them.  I  have  never  seen  honey-bees 
biting  flowers.  I  think  they  never  do  it.  Xylocopa  Califor- 
nica  is  very  common  here  at  Claremont.    The  females  are 


42  THE   BEE-KEEPER*S   GUIDE  ; 

black,  and  the  males  light  yellow.  My  students  told  me  the 
females  would  not  sting.  I  said  that  was  strange,  and  picked 
one  up.  I  threw  it  down  very  quickly,  and  have  not  repeated 
the  experiment. 

The  mason-bees— well  named — construct  cells  of  earth, 
which,  by  aid  of  their  spittle,  they  cement  so  that  these  cells 
are  veni'  hard.  There  are  several  genera  of  these  bees,  the 
elegant  Osmia,  the  brilliant  Augochlora,  the  more  sober  but 
very  numerous  Andrena — the  little  black  bees  that  often  steal 
into  the  hives  for  honey,  etc.  Some  burrow  in  sand,  some 
build  in  hollowed-out  weeds,  some  build  mud  cells  in  cre\nces, 
even  small  key-holes  not  being  exempt,  as  I  have  too  good 
reason  to  know.  The  Yale  locks  in  our  museum  have  thus 
suffered.  Here  the  lard  and  kerosene  mixture  again  comes  in 
play. 

The  tailor,  or  leaf-cutting,  bees,  of  the  genus  Megachile, 
make  wonderful  cells  from  variously  shaped  pieces  of  leaves. 
These  are  always  mathematical  in  form,  usually  circular  and 
oblong,  are  cut— the  insect  making  scissors  of  its  jaws— from 
various  leaves,  the  rose  being  a  favorite.  I  have  found  these 
cells  made  almost  wholly  of  the  petals  or  flower-leaves  of  the 
rose.  The  cells  are  made  by  gluing  these  leaf -sections  in  con- 
centric layers,  letting  them  overlap.  The  oblong  sections  form 
the  walls  of  the  cylinder,  while  the  circular  pieces  are  crowded 
into  the  tubes  as  we  press  circular  wads  into  our  shot-guns, 
and  are  used  at  the  ends,  or  for  partitions  where  several  cells 
are  placed  together.  When  complete,  the  single  cells  are  in 
form  and  size  much  like  a  revolver  cartridge.  "When  several 
are  placed  together,  which  is  usually  the  case,  they  are 
arranged  end  to  end,  and  in  size  and  form  are  quite  like  a  small 
stick  of  candy,  though  not  more  than  one-third  as  long. 
These  cells  I  have  found  in  the  grass,  partially  buried  in  the 
earth,  in  crevices,  and  in  one  case  knew  of  their  being  built  in 
the  folds  of  a  partially-knit  sock,  which  a  good  house-wife  had 
chanced  to  leave  stationary'  for  some  days.  These  leaf -cutters 
often  have  yellow  hairs  underneath  their  bodies,  which  aid 
them  in  carrying  pollen.  I  have  noticed  them  each  summer, 
for  some  years,  swarming  on  the  Virginia  creeper,  often  called 
woodbine,  while  in  blossom,  in  quest  of   pollen,  though  I  have 


Or,  manuai,  op  ths  apiary.  43 

rarely  seen  the  hive-bee  on  these  vines.  The  tailor-bees  often 
cut  the  foliag-e  of  the  same  vines  quite  badly.  The  males  of 
these  bees  have  curiously  modified,  and  broadly  fringed  ante- 
rior legs.  I  have  found  these  tailor-bees  as  common  in  Califor- 
nia as  in  Michigan. 

I  have  often  reared  beautiful  bees  of  the  genera  Osmia 
and  Augochlora,  which,  as  already  stated,  are  also  called 
mason-bees.  Their  glistening  colors  of  blue  and  green  possess 
a  luster  and  reflection  unsurpassed  even  by  the  metals  them- 
selves. These  rear  their  young  in  cells  of  mud,  in  mud-cells 
lining  hollow  weeds  and  shrubs,  and  in  burrows  which  they 
dig  in  the  hard  earth.  In  early  summer,  during  warm  days, 
these  glistening  gems  of  life  are  frequently  seen  in  walks  and 
drives  intent  on  gathering  earth  for  mortar,  or  digging  holes, 
and  will  hardly  escape  identification  by  the  observing  apiarist, 
as  their  form  is  so  much  like  that  of  our  honey-bees.  They 
are  smaller,  yet  their  broad  head,  prominent  eyes,  and  general 
form,  are  very  like  those  of  the  equally  quick  and  active,  yet 
more  soberly  attired,  workers  of  the  apiary.  The  beautiful— 
often  beautifully  striped— species  of  Ceratina  look  much  like 
those  of  Osmia,  but  they  nest  in  hollows  in  stems  of  various 
plants,  which,  in  some  cases,  they  themselves  form.  In  south- 
western Michigan  they  do  no  little  harm  by  boring  the  black- 
berry canes.     They  have  simple  hind  legs. 

Other  bees— the  numerous  species  of  the  genus  Nomada, 
and  of  Apathus— are  the  black  sheep  in  the  family  Apidae. 
These  tramps,  already  referred  to,  like  the  English  cuckoo  and 
our  American  cow-blackbird,  steal  in  upon  the  unwary,  and, 
though  all  unbidden,  lay  their  eggs  ;  in  this  way  appropriating 
food  and  lodgings  for  their  own  yet  unborn.  Thus  these  insect 
vagabonds  impose  upon  the  unsuspecting  foster-mothers  in 
their  violated  homes,  and  these  same  foster-mothers  show  by 
their  tender  care  of  these  merciless  intruders,  that  they  are 
miserably  fooled,  for  they  carefully  guard  and  feed  infant  bees, 
which,  with  age,  will  in  turn  practice  this  same  nefarious 
trickery.  The  Apathus  species  are  parasites  on  the  Bombus  ; 
the  Nomada  species,  which  are  small  bees,  often  beautifully 
ringed,  on  the  small  black  Andrenae. 

The  species  of  Andrena,  Halictus,  the  red  Sphecodes,  and 


44  THE  BEE-KBEPKR'S  GUIDE; 

Others  of  the  Andrenidae  of  some  authors,  have  short,  flat 
tongues,  with  equi-jointed  labial  palpi.  These  bees  have  been 
little  studied,  and  there  are  very  numerous  undescribed  species. 

I  reluctantly  withhold  further  particulars  of  this  wonder- 
ful bee-family.  When  first  I  visited  Messrs.  Townley  and 
Davis,  of  Michigan,  I  was  struck  with  the  fine  collection  of 
wild-bees  which  each  had  made.  Yet,  unknowingly,  they  had 
incorporated  many  that  were  not  bees.  Of  course,  many  api- 
arists will  wish  to  make  such  collections,  and  also  to  study  our 
wild  bees.  I  hope  the  above  will  prove  both  a  stimulus  and 
aid.  I  hope,  too,  that  it  will  stimulate  others,  especially  youth, 
to  the  valuable  and  intensely  interesting  study  of  these  won- 
ders of  nature.  I  am  glad  to  open  to  the  reader  a  page  from 
the  book  of  nature  so  replete  with  attractions  as  is  the  above. 
Nor  do  I  think  I  have  taken  too  much  space  in  revealing  the 
strange  and  mai*velous  instincts,  and  wonderfully  varied  habits, 
of  this  brightest  of  insect  families,  at  the  head  of  which  stand 
our  own  fellow-laborers  and  companions  of  the  apiary. 

I  shall  be  very  glad  to  receive  specimens  of  wild  bees  from 
every  State  in  our  country.  To  send  bees  or  other  insects, 
kill  with  gasoline  or  chloroform,  wrap  with  cotton  or  tissue 
paper,  so  as  to  prevent  injury,  and  mail  in  a  strong  box. 

THE   GENUS  OF  THE  HONEY-BEE. 

The  genus  Apis  includes  all  bees  that  have  no  tibial  spurs 
on  the  posterior  legs,  and  at  the  same  time  have  three  cubital 
or  sub-costal  cells  (6,  7,  8,  Fig.  2) — the  second  row  from  the 
costal  or  anterior  edge — on  the  front  or  primary  wings.  The 
marginal  cell  (Fig.  2,  5)  is  very  long.  On  the  inner  side  of  the 
posterior  basal  tarsus,  opposite  the  pollen-baskets,  in  the 
neuters  or  workers,  are  rows  of  hairs  (Fig.  71),  which  are  used 
in  collecting  pollen.  In  the  males,  which  do  no  work  except 
to  fertilize  the  queens,  the  large  compound  eyes  meet  above, 
crowding  the  simple  eyes  below  (Fig.  3),  while  in  the  workers 
(Fig.  4)  and  queens  these  simple  eyes  (called  ocelli)  are  above, 
and  the  compound  eyes  wide  apart.  The  compound  eyes  are 
in  all  cases  hairy  (Figs.  3,  4).  The  drones  and  queens  have 
weak   jaws,  with  a  rudimentary  tooth  (Fig.  65,   a  b),  short 


OR,  MANUAI<  OF  THE  APIARY. 


45 


tongues,  and  no  pollen-baskets,  though  they  have  the  broad 
tibia  and  wide  basal  tarsus  (Fig.  48,  /,  s). 

There  is  some  doubt  as   to  the   number  of  species  of  this 
Fig.  2. 


Anterior  and  Posterior  Wi7igs  of  Bee.— Original. 


h  Hooklets  much  magnified. 

a  Costal  vein. 

b  Sub-costal  vein. 

c  Median  vein. 

d  Anal  vein. 

q  Posterior  margin. 

e  Fold  where  hooklets  catch. 

h  Hooklets, 


1  Costal  cell. 

2  Median  cell. 

3  Sub-median  cell. 

4  Anal  cell. 

5  Marginal  cell. 

6,  7,  8,  Sub-marginal  cells. 
10,  11  and  12,  Discoidal  cells. 


46  THE   BEE-KEEPER'S  GUIDE", 

genus.  It  is  certain  that  the  Italian  bee,  the  Egyptian  bee, 
the  Cyprian  bee,  and  the  bees  of  Syria,  of  which  Mr.  Benton 
states  that  there  are  at  least  two  distinct  races,  are  only  races 
of  the  Apis  mellifera,  which  also  includes  the  Tunisian  or 
Punic  bees,  theCarniolan,  and  the  German  or  black  bee. 

Mr.  F.  Smith,  an  able  entomologist  of  England,  considers 
Apis  dorsata  of  India  and  the  East  Indies,  Apis  zonata  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  Apis  indica  of  India  and  China,  and  Apis 

Fig.  3. 


M 


Head  of  Drone,  magnified.— Original. 
AntenDse,  Compound  Eyes,  Simple  Eyes. 

florea  of  India,  Ceylon,  China,  and  Borneo,  as  distinct  species. 
He  thinks,  also,  that  Apis  adonsoni  and  Apis  nigrocincta  are 
distinct,  but  states  that  they  may  be  varieties  of  Apis  indica. 
Others  think  them  races  of  dorsata.  Some  regard  Apis  uni- 
color  as  a  distinct  species,  but  it  is  probably  a  variety  of  Apis 
mellifera.  As  Apis  mellifera  has  not  been  found  in  India,  and 
is  a  native  of  Europe,  Western  Asia,  and  Africa,  it  seems 
quite  possible,  though  not  probable,  that  several  of  the  above 
may  turn  out  to  be  only  varieties  of  Apis  mellifera.  If  there 
are  only  color  and  size  to  distinguish  them,  and,  indeed,  one 
may  add  habits,  then  we  may  suspect,  with  good  reason,  the 
validity  of  the  above  arrangement.  If  there  be  structural 
difference,  as  Mr.  Wallace  says  there  is,  in  the  male  dorsata, 
then  we  may  call  them  different  species*  The  Italian  certainly 
has  a  longer  tongue  than  the  German,  yet  that  is  not  sufficient 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THB  APIARY.  47 

to  separate  them  as  species.  Apis  zonata  of  the  East  Indies, 
and  Apis  unicolor,  are  said  to  be  very  black. 

I  append  the  followingr  chart,  which  I  think  represents 
pretty  accurately  the  species,  races  and  varieties  of  the  eenus 
Apis.    (See  page  48.) 

Where  k  race  is  followed  by  an  interrogation  point,  there 
is  a  question  if  it  should  not  be  considered  a  variety  of  the  last 
preceding  race  not  thus  marked.  Some  of  the  races,  like  the 
Italian,  Cyprian,  Greek,  etc.,  Vogel  considers  had  their  origin 
in  a  cross  between  the  yellow  and  black  races.  Vogel's  con- 
clusion was  reached  from  a  long  series  of  experiments,  cross- 
ing Italian  and  German  bees,  and  then  breeding  from  such 
"'"''"'■      It  seems  likely  that  through  the  law  of  variation 

Fig.  4. 


Bead  of  Worker,  magnified.— Original. 
Antennae,  Compound  Eyes,  Simple  Eyes. 

each  race  might   have  originated   independently,  or  possibly 
all,  as  varieties  of  the  Egyptian  bee. 

In  the  autumn  of  1879,  Mr.  D.  A.  Jones,  of  Beeton,  Ontario, 
Canada,  inaugurated  the  grandest  enterprise  ever  undertaken 
in  the  interest  of  apiculture.  This  was  nothing  less  than  to 
visit  Cyprus,  Syria,  and  the  more  distant  India  and  the  East 
Indies,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  and  introducing  into  Amer- 
ica such  species  and  races  of  bees  as  gave  promise  of  superior 
excellence.     Mr.  Jones  procured  the  services  of  Mr.  Frank 


THB  bee-keeper's  GUIDE  *, 


Species. 

Apis  Indica,  Fab. 
Apis  florea,  Fab. 
Apis  dorsata,  Fab. 


Apis  melifera. 


Races. 

■  A.  dorsata  nigripennis, 

Latr. 
A.  dorsata  bicolor, 

Klug. 
A.  dorsata  zonata, 

Smith. 

'  A.  mellifera  nigra. 
German  Bee. 


A.  mellifera  fasciata, 

Egyptian  Bee. 
Syrian  (?) 
South  Palestine  (?) 
Cyprian  (?) 
Italian  (?) 
Greek  (?) 
Bonnat  (?) 
Caucasian  (?) 
A.  mellifera  unicolor 

Latr. 'Madagascar. 
A.  mellifera  adonsoni, 

African  Bee. 


f  Carniolan  or  Krainer, 
Heath. 
Hungarian. 
Dalmatian. 
Herzegovinian. 
Smyrnian. 
Tunisian. 
Common  black. 


:Benton,  a  graduate  of  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  a 
fine  linguist  and  skilled  apiarist,  to  aid  in  his  undertaking. 
After  visiting  the  principal  apiaries  of  Europe,  these  gentle- 
men located  at  Larnica,  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  where  they 
established  a  large  apiary  composed  of  Cyprian  and  Syrian 
bees.  The  Cyprian  bees  were  purchased  on  the  island,  while 
the  Syrians  were  procured  personally  by  Mr.  Jones  in  Syria. 
The  following  June  Mr.  Jones  returned  to  America  with  sev- 
eral hundred  queens  of  these  two  races.  Mr.  Benton  remained 
at  Larnica  to  rear  and  ship  more  queens  to  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica. The  following  winter  Mr.  Benton  visited  Ceylon,  Farther 
India,  and  Java,  as  Mr.  Jones  was  determined  to  ascertain  if 
there  were  better  bees  than  those  we  already  had,  and  if  so  to 
secure  them.  Apis  dorsata  (Figs.  5,  6)  was  the  special  object  of 
the  quest,  and  as  this  bee  was  known  as  the  "  great  bee  of 
Java,"  Mr.  Benton  visited  that  island,  in  hopes  to  procure 
these  bees.  But  to  the  sore  disappointment  not  only  of  those 
who  had  the  enterprise  in  charge,  but  of  all  progressive  api- 
arists, the  bees  in  question  were  not  to  be  found  on  that  island. 
Mr.  Benton  learned  at  a  great  cost  that  this  bee  is  rare  iu 


OK,    MA.N'UAI.  Oi-'   THE   APIAKY. 


49 


Java    but   common   in    the  jungles  of    Ceylon,   Hindoostan 

Farther  Indja,  Sumatra,  Borneo,  and   Timor.     In   Ceylon,  Mn 

Fig.  5. 


A.\lor$ata  Worker,  X2. 

(From  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

Benton  saw  many  colonies,  most  of  which  were  in  inaccessible 

places,  though  he  secured,  after  great  labor  and  hardship   four 

colonies. 

Fig.  6. 


A.  dorsata  Drone,  X2. 
(From  Departmeat  of  Agriculture.) 

These  bees  usually  suspend  their  great  combs,  which  are 
often  SIX  feet  long  and  four  feet  wide,  to  overhanging  rocks,  or 


50  THE   BEE-KEEPER  S   GUIDE; 

to  horizontal  branches  of  trees.  In  one  case,  Mr.  Benton  found 
them  in  the  crevice  of  a  rock,  nearly  surrounded  by  the  same. 
This  indicates  that  they  may  be  kept  in  hives.  The  combs 
hang-  side  by  side,  so  do  those  of  our  common  bees,  but  are  one- 
half  inch  apart.  Mr.  Benton  found  the  tops  of  the  combs, 
■which  contain  the  honey,  from  three  to  six  inches  thick,  while 
those  v^-here  brood  is  reared,  are  one  and  one-half  inches  thick. 
Drones  and  workers  are  all  reared  in  the  same  cells,  which  are 
about  the  size  of  the  drone  brood-cells  of  our  honey-comb,  The 
worker-bees,  some   specimens  of  which  I   have  received  from 

Fig.  7. 


■fe  m^^^ 


Workn-Celh.—A .  incUra. 
(From  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

Mr.  Jones,  in  size  and  general  appearance  much  resemble  our 
Italian  queens.  They  have  blue-black  wings,  black  bodies, 
which  are  ringed  very  much  as  are  our  Italians,  only  the  yellow 
largely  predominates.  Mr.  Benton  writes  me  that  in  form  and 
style  of  flight  they  much  resemble  wasps.  They  are  the  same 
size  as  the  drones,  varying  from  three-fourths  to  seven-eighths 
of  an  inch  in  length.  They  are  easily  handled  by  aid  of 
smoke,  and  are  very  clumsy  in  their  attempts  to  sting.  Their 
sting  is  no  larger  than  that  of  our  common  bees,  while  the 
pain  from  their  sting,  Mr.  Benton  says,  is  not  so  great.  The 
drones  are  dark  brown,  marked  with  yellow.  Strangely 
enough,  they  only  fly,  unless  disturbed,  after  sundown.  This 
Is  unfortunate,  as  with  the  same  habits  we  might  hope  to  mate 
them  with  our  common  bees,  and  thus  procure  a  valuable 
cross.  This  maj'  be  a  developed  peculiarity,  to  protect  them 
from  birds,  and  so  might  very  likely  disappear  with  domesti- 
cation. The  queens  are  leather-colored,  and  smaller,  as  com- 
pared with  the  workers,  than  are  our  common  queens.  The 
queens  are  more  restless  than   are  the  workers  while  being- 


OR,  MANUAL  OF   THE   APIAKY. 


51 


handled.  While  procuring  these  bees,  Mr.  Benton  was  pros- 
trated with  a  fever,  and  so  the  bees,  during  their  long  voyage 
to  Syria,  were  neglected.  Strange  to  say,  one  colony  survived 
the  long  confinement,  but  perished  soon  after  reaching  Syria. 
We  can  not  call  this  journey  a  failure,  as  we  now  have  the 
information  that  will  render  a  second  attempt  surely  success- 
ful.  What  has  been  learned  will  make  the  enterprising  bee- 
keeper more  desirous  than  ever  to  secure  these  bees.  Their 
large  size,  and  immense  capabilities  in  the  way  of  wax-secre- 
tion, as  well  as  honey-storing,  give  us  reason  to  hope  for  sub- 
stantial benefits  from  their  importation. 

Mr.  Benton  also  found  A.  indica  and  A.  florea  on  the 
Island  of  Ceylon.  I  have  received  some  of  the  bees  and  comb 
of  the  former  species.  The  comb  is  very  delicate,  the  cells 
(Fig.  7)  being  only  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The 
workers  are  less  than  one-half  of  an  inch  long,  brown  in  color, 
and  their  entire  abdomens  are  beautifully  ringed  with  brown 
and  yellow.  The  drones  are  black,  and  very  small.  The  one 
I  have  measures  an  eighth  of  an  inch  less  in  length  than  does 
the  worker.  The  queens  are  leather-colored,  and  very  large  as 
compared  with  the  workers.  They  are  as  large  as  are  our 
Fig.  8. 


Worker-Ce!lti.—A.  Fhrm. 
(From  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

common  queens.  These  bees  are  very  quick,  and  are  domesti- 
cated on  the  Island  of  Ceylon.  The  workers  of  A.  florea  are 
also  banded,  and  are  more  beautiful  even  than  those  of  A. 
indica.  They  are  very  small.  The  corabs  are  not  larger  than 
one's  hand,  and  so  diminutive  are  the  cells  (Fig.  8)  that  100 


52  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

bees  are  produced  to  the  square  inch.  The  color  is  blue-black, 
with  the  basal  third  of  the  abdomen  orange. 

The  sting-  of  these  two  species  is  very  small.  From  the 
small  amount  of  stores  which  they  gather,  the  tendency  which 
they  have  to  swarm  out,  and  their  inability  to  stand  the  cold, 
these  two  species  promise  little  of  value  except  from  a  scientific 
point  of  view.  One  colony  of  A.  florea  was  brought  by  Mr. 
Benton  to  Cyprus,  but  it  swarmed  out  and  was  lost. 

It  seems  strange  that  the  genus  Apis  should  not  have  been 
native  to  the  American  continent.  The  "  large  brown  bee " 
which  some  of  our  bee-keepers  think  native  to  America,  is  un- 
doubtedly but  a  variety  of  the  common  black,  or  German,  bee. 
Without  doubt  there  were  no  bees  of  this  genus  here  till  intro- 
duced by  the  Caucasian  race.  It  seems  more  strange,  as  we 
find  that  all  the  continents  and  islands  of  the  Eastern  Hemis- 
phere abound  with  representatives.  It  is  one  more  illustration 
of  the  strange,  inextricable  puzzles  connected  with  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  animals. 

SPECIES  OF  OUR  HONEY-BEES. 

The  bees  at  present  domesticated  are  all  of  one  species — 
A  pis  mellifera.  The  character  of  this  species  will  appear  in 
the  next  chapter,  as  we  proceed  with  their  anatomy  and 
physiology.  As  before  stated,  this  species  is  native  exclusively 
to  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  though  it  has  been  introduced 
wherever  civilized  man  has  taken  up  his  abode. 

RACES  OF  THE  HONEY-BEE. 

German  or  Black  Bees. 

The  German  or  black  bee  is  the  race  best  known,  as  through 
all  the  ages  it  has  been  most  widely  distributed.  The  name 
"German  "  refers  to  locality,  while  the  name  "  Talack  "  is  a 
misnomer,  as  the  bee^  is  a  gray-black.  The  queen,  and,  in  a 
less  degree,  the  drones,  are  darker,  wbile  the  legs  and  under, 
surface  of  the  former  are  brown,  or  copper-colored,  and  of  the 
latter  light  gray.  The  tongue  of  the  black  worker  I  have 
found,  by  repeated  dissections  and  comparisons  made  both  by 
myself   and  by  my  pupils,  is  shorter  than   that  of  the  Italian 


OR,   MANUAL  OP  tHU  AttARY.  53 

worker,  and  .generally  Jess  hairy.  The  bees  are  more  irritable, 
and  jomoreiik^ely  to  sti^  than  the  Italians,  They  are  also 
wont  to  keep  flylng-Tjefore  one's  face  in'threatening  mien  for 
hours,  until  killed.  The  wise  apiarist  will  dispatch  such  quar- 
relsome workers  at  once.  The  black  bees  have  been  known  no 
longer  than  the  Italians,  as  we  find  the  latter  were  known 
both  to  Aristotle,  the  fourth  century  B.  C,  and  to  Virg-il,  the 
great  Roman  poet,  who  sang  of  the  variegated  golden  bee,  the 
first  century  B.  C;  and  we  can  only  account  for  the  wider  dis- 
tribution of  the  German  bee  by  considering  the  more  vigorous, 
pushing  habits  of  the  Germanic  races,  who  not  only  over-ran 
and  infused  life  into  Southern  Europe,  but  have  vitalized  all 
Christendom. 

Ligurian  or  Italian  Bee. 

The  Italian  bee  is  characterized  as  a  race,  not  only  by  dif- 
ference of  color,  habits,  and  activity,  but  also  by  possessing 
a  little  longer  tongue.  These  bees  were  first  described  as  dis- 
tinct from  the  German  race  by  Spinola,  in  1805,  who  gave  the 
name  "  I^igurian  "  bee,  which  name  prevails  in  Europe.  The 
name  comes  from  a  province  of  Northern  Italy,  north  of  the 
Ligurian  Gulf,  or  Gulf  of  Genoa.  This  region  is  shut  off  from 
Northern  Europe  by  the  Alps,  and  thus  these  bees  were  kept 
apart  from  the  German  bees,  and  in  warmer,  more  genial  Italy, 
was  developed  a  distinct  race— our  beautiful  Italians.  It  seems 
to  me  quite  reasonable  to  suppose  from  the  appearance  of  the 
bees,  and  also  from  the  migrations  of  the  human  race,  that  the 
Italian  bee  is  an  off-shoot  from  the  Cyprian,  and  quite  likely 
both  of  these  of  the  Syrian  race. 

In  1843,  Von  Balden  stein  procured  a  colony  of  these  bees, 
which  he  had  previously  observed  as  peculiar,  while  stationed 
as  a  military  captain  in  Italy.  He  published  his  experience  in 
1848,  whieh  was  read  by  Dzierzon,  who  became  interested,  and 
through  him  the  Italian  became  generally  introduced  into 
Germany.  In  1859— six  years  after  Dzierzon 's  first  importa- 
tion—the Italian  bee  was  introduced  into  England  by  Neigh- 
bour. The  same  year,  Messrs.  Wagner  and  Colvin  imported 
the  Italians  from  Dzierzon's  apiary  into  America  ;  and  in  1860, 


?4  THE  BEE-KKKPER'S   GUIDE; 

Mr.  S.  B.  Parsons   brought   the   first  colonies  that  were  im- 
ported direct  from  Italy. 

The  Italian  worker-bee  is  quickly  distinguished  by  the 
bright  yellow  rings  at  the  base  of  the  abdomen.  Perhaps 
golden  would  be  a  better  term,  as  these  bands  are  often  bright 
orange.  If  the  colony  be  pure,  every  bee  will  show  three  of 
these  golden  girdles  (Fig.  9,  A,  B.  C).     The  first  two  segments 

Fig.  9. 


Abdomen  of  Italian  Worker. 
(From  A.  I.  Root  Co.) 

or  rings  of  the  abdomen,  except  at  their  posterior  border,  and 
also  the  base  or  anterior  border  of  the  third,  will  be  of  this 
erange-yellow  hue.  The  rest  of  the  back  or  dorsal  surface  will 
be  much  as  in  the  German  race.  Underneath  the  abdomen, 
except  for  a  greater  or  less  distance  at  the  tip,  will  also  be 
yellow,  while  the  same  color  appears  more  or  less  strongly 
marked  on  the  legs.  The  workers  have  longer  ligulae  or 
tongues  (Fig.  54)  than  the  German  race,  permitting  them  to 
gather  nectar  from  long  flower-tubes,  which  is  inaccessible  to 
our  common  bees,  and  their  tongues  are  also  a  little  more 
hairy  than  are  those  of  the  black  bees.  They  are  also  more 
active,  and  less  inclined  to  sting.  The  queen  has  the  entire 
base  of  her  abdomen,  and  sometimes  nearly  the  whole  of  it, 
orange-yellow.     The  variation  as   to   amount  of  color  is  quite 


OR,  MANUAL  Of   13.%  APIARY.  SS 

striking-.  Sometimes  very  dark  queens  are  imported  rigfht 
from  the  Ligurian  hills,  yet  all  the  workers  will  wear  the 
badge  of  purity — the  three  golden  bands. 

The  drones  are  quite  variable.  Sometimes  the  rings  and 
patches  of_yellow_will  be  very  promijieatr-tben,-  agaiar^qulte 
l^gisgncty  Butthe  unSeT^rde'of'the.body  is  always,  so  far  as 
I  have  observed,  mainly  yelloW;__ 

A  variety  of  our  Italian  bees,  which  is  very  beautiful  and 
gentle,  has  the  rows  of  white  hairs  (Fig.  9,  J,  K,  L,  M)  un- 
usually distinct,  and  is  being  sold  in  the  United  States  under 
the  name  of  Albinos.  They  are  not  a  distinct  race.  In  fact, 
I  have  often  noticed  among  Italians  the  so-called  Albinos  sev- 
eral times,  and  have  not  found  them  superior,  or  even  equal,  I 
think,  to  the  average  Italian. 

THE  SYRIAN  AND  CYPRIAN   RACES. 

Through  the  enterprise  of  Messrs.  D.  A.  Jones  and  Frank 
Benton,  we  now  have  these  races  in  our  country,  and  have 
proved  the  truth  of  the  assertion  of  noted  European  apiarists, 
that  the  Cyprian  is  a  distinct  race  of  bees. 

Mr.  Benton,  than  whom  no  one  is  better  fitted  to  express  a 
correct  opinion,  thinks  that  the  Cyprian  bees  are  the  offspring 
of  the  Syrian.  This  opinion  is  strengthened  by  the  close  re- 
semblance of  the  two  races,  and  by  the  fact  that  migrations 
of  all  kinds  have  gone  westward.  A  similar  argument  would 
make  it  presumable  that  the  Cyprians  gave  rise  to  the  Italians. 

The  Cyprian  bees  resemble  the  Italians  very  closely.  They 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  bright  leather-colored  lunule 
which  tips  their  thorax  posteriorly,  and  by  the  fact  that  the 
under  side  of  their  bodies  is  yellow  to  the  tip.  They  are  more 
active  than  are  the  Italians,  and  the  queens  are  more  prolific. 

The  good  qualities  of  the  Italians  seem  all  to  be  exagger- 
ated in  the  Cyprians,  except  the  trait  of  amiability.  The 
Cyprian  bees  are  second  only  to  the  Egyptian  in  irritability. 
That  they  will  become  less  cross  with  handling  is  to  be  ex- 
pected. 

The  Syrian  bees  are  from  Asiatic  Turkey,  north  of  Mount 
Carmel,  and  are  a  very  well  marked  race.  The  Syrian  queens 
are  remarkably  uniform.    Their  abdomens  above  are,  like  the 


56  THE   bee-keeper's  GUIDE*, 

little  A.  indica,    beautifully   banded   with    yellow   and   black. 

They  are   very  quick   and   remarkably   prolific.     They  do  not 

cease  laying  even  when  the  honey-flow  ceases.     They  are  often 

Fig.  10. 


Caniioltjit  Queen. — X2. 
(From  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

kept  prisoners  in  the  cells  longer  than   are  queens  of  other 

races,   and  so  may   fly  out  at  once  upon   emerging.     They 

Fig.  11. 


Caruwlan  Wvrlcer. — X3. 
(From  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

emerge  from  the  cells  at  about  the  same  time,  so  that  often  all 
the  queens  may  emerge  from  the  cells  within  a  few  hours,  or 
even  one  hour.     The  workers  closely   resemble  those  of  the 


OS,  MANUAI,  OF   THE    APIARY.  57 

Italian  race,  only  that  they  were  more  yellow  beneath,  and 
when  first  from  the  cells,  or  newly  hatched,  they  are  very 
dark,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  body-rings  seemed  pushed 
together.  They  are  admirable  in  the  way  they  defend  their 
hives  against  robbers,  the  ease  with  which  they  are  shaken 
from  the  combs,  their  great  activity,  their  great  tendency  to 
remain  in  the  hive  on  very  windy  days,  the  wonderful  fecundity 
of  the  queen,  her  persistence  in  laying  during  a  dearth  of  nec- 
tar-secretion, and  their  great  euperiority  for  queen-rearing. 
Fig.  12. 


Carrtiolati  Drone. — X2. 
(From  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

often  starting  fifty  or  more  good  queen-cells.  Neither  the 
Cyprian  nor  Syrian  has  found  favor  in  America,  and  have 
largely  been  given  up. 

OTHER   RACKS. 

The  Egyptian  bees  are  very  yellow,  intensely  cross,  and 
frequently  have  laying  workers.  These  are  probably  the  bees 
which  are  famous  in  history,  as  having  been  moved  up  and 
down  the  Nile,  in  rude  boats  or  rafts,  as  the  varying  periods  of 
nectar-secreting  bloom  seemed  to  demand. 

The  heath  bees  of  Northern  Germany  are  much  like  the 
common  German  bees,  of  which  they  are  a  strain,  except  that 
they  are  far  more  inclined  to  swarm. 

The  Carniolan    bees  (Figs.   10,  11,   12)   of  Southwestern 


58  THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE  *, 

Austria,  also  called  Krainer  bees,  from  the  mountainous  re- 
gion of  Krain,  Austria,  are  praised  as  a  very  hardy  variety. 
They  are  black  with  white  ring-s — a  sort  of  albino — German 
bee.  They  are  like  the  heath  variety,  but  are  specially  noted 
for  their  very  g-entle  dispositions.  Some  European  bee-keepers 
claim  that  this  strain  or  variety  is  much  superior  to  the  com- 
mon German  bees.  Mr.  Benton,  I  think,  holds  strongly  to 
this  opinion.     After  a  brief  trial  I  am  pleased  with  these  bees. 

The  Hungarian  bees  are  longer  than  the  typical  German 
race,  and  are  covered  with  gray  hairs.  During  the  poor  season 
of  1875  in  Europe,  these  bees,  like  the  Carniolans,  were  found 
superior  even  to  the  Italians. 

The  beautiful  Dalmatian  bees  are  slim,  wasp-like,  and  very 
black.  The  rings  of  their  abdomens  are  banded  with  lightish 
yellow.  Their  honey  is  even  more  white  and  beautiful  than 
that  of  the  German  race.  Some  of  the  best  European  bee- 
keepers claim  that  they  are  superior  to  the  Italian  bees. 

Akin  to  the  Dalmatian  bees  are  the  Herzegovinian  variety, 
which  comes  from  the  mountainous  region  of  Bosnia,  border- 
ing on  the  Adriatic  Sea.  A  better  marked  variety — the  Smyr- 
nian  bees — from  Western  Asia,  and  also  much  praised  by  some 
of  the  noted  Austrian  bee-keepers,  as  are  also  the  Caucasian, 
from  the  Caucasus  Mountains,  which  are  said  to  be  very 
active  and  amiable. 

The  Tunisian  bees,  from  Tunis  in  the  north  of  Africa,  are 
said  to  be  even  darker  than  the  black  or  German  bee.  They 
are  described  as  quite  irritable.  These  were  the  "  Punic  bees  " 
sold  in  the  United  States  some  years  since.  They  did  not  keep 
in  favor.  It  is  stated  that  there  is  a  race  of  bees  which  are 
domesticated  in  the  south  of  Africa.  From  the  descriptions  I 
should  think  them  quite  like  our  Albinos  in  appearance.  They 
are  said  to  be  excellent  honey-producers,  and  to  work  even  by 
moonlight.  It  is  quite  likely  that  some  of  these  varieties 
might  be  found  to  endure  our  severe  winters  better  than  the 
pure  German  type,  or  the  Italians.  Now  that  we  are  to  have 
an  experimental  station  in  each  State,  we  may  expect  that  all 
these  races  will  be  imported,  that  we  may  prove  them  and 
know  which  is  the  best. 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THK   APIARY.  59 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

It  would  be  a  pleasing  duty,  and  not  an  unprofitable  one, 
to  g-ive  in  this  connection  a  complete  history  of  entomolog-y  so 
far  as  it  relates  to  Apis  mellifera.  But  this  would  take  much 
space,  and  as  there  is  quite  a  full  history  in  books,  that  I  shall 
recommend  to  those  who  are  eager  to  know  more  of  this  in- 
teresting department  of  natural  history,  I  will  not  go  into 
details. 

Aristotle  wrote  of  bees  more  than  three  hundred  years  B. 
C.  About  three  hundred  years  later,  Virgil,  in  his  fourth 
Georgic,  gave  to  the  world  the  views  then  extant  on  this  sub- 
ject, gathered  largely  from  the  writings  of  Aristotle.  The 
poetry  will  ever  be  remarkable  for  its  beauty  and  elegance- 
would  that  as  much  might  be  said  for  the  subject  matter, 
which,  though  full  of  interest,  is  full  of  errors.  A  little  later, 
Columella,  though  usually  careful  and  accurate  in  his  observa- 
tions, still  gave  voice  to  the  prevailing  errors,  though  much 
that  he  wrote  was  valuable,  and  more  was  curious.  As  Mr. 
Langstroth  once  said  to  me.  Columella  wrote  as  one  who  had 
handled  the  things  of  which  he  wrote  ;  and  not  like  Virgil,  as 
one  who  was  dealing  with  second-hand  wares.  Pliny,  the 
elder,  who  wrote  in  the  second  century,  A.  D.,  helped  to  con- 
tinue the  erroneous  opinions  which  previous  authors  had  given, 
and  not  content  with  this,  he  added  opinions  of  his  own,  which 
were  not  only  without  foundation,  but  were  often  the  perfec- 
tion of  absurdity. 

After  this,  nearly  two  thousand  years  passed  with  no  prog- 
ress in  natural  history  ;  even  for  two  centuries  after  the  revival 
of  learning,  we  find  nothing  of  note.  Swammerdam,  a  Dutch 
entomologist,  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  wrote 
a  general  history  of  insects;  also,  "The  Natural  History  of 
Bees."  He  and  his  English  contemporary,  Ray,  showed  their 
ability  as  naturalists  by  founding  their  systems  on  insect 
transformations.  They  also  revived  the  study  and  practice  of 
anatomy,  which  had  slept  since  its  first  introduction  by  Aris- 
totle, as  the  great  stepping-stone  in  zoological  progress.  I 
never  open  the  grand  work  of  Swammerdam,  with  its  admir- 
able illustrations,  without  feelings  of  the  most  profound   re- 


60  THE  bee-keeper's  guide  ; 

spect  and  admiration.  Though  a  very  pioneer  in  anatomy, 
and  one  of  the  founders  of  Natural  Science,  and  possessed  of 
lenses  of  very  inferior  quality,  yet  he  wrote  with  an  accuracy, 
and  illustrated  even  minute  tissues  with  a  correctness  and 
elegance  that  might  well  put  to  the  blush  many  a  modem 
writer.  His  description  of  the  bee's  tongue  is  more  accurate 
than  that  even  of  the  last  edition  of  the  Encyclopedia  Britanica. 

Ray  also  gave  special  attention  to  Hymenoptera,  and  was 
much  aided  by  "Willoughby  and  Lister.  At  this  time  Harvey, 
so  justly  noted  for  his  discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
announced  his  celebrated  dictum,  "Omnia  ex  ovo" — all  life 
from  eggs — which  was  completely  established  by  the  noted 
Italians,  Redi  and  Malpighi.  Toward  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  great  Lrinnsus — "  the  brilliant  Star  of 
the  North  " — published  his  "  Systema  Naturae,"  and  threw  a 
flood  of  light  on  the  whole  subject  of  natural  history.  His 
division  of  insects  was  founded  upon  presence,  or  absence,  and 
characteristics,  of  wings.  This,  like  Swammerdam's  basis,  was 
too  narrow,  yet  his  conclusions  were  remarkably  correct. 
Linnaeus  is  noted  for  his  accurate  descriptions,  and  especially 
for  his  gift  of  the  binomial  method  of  naming  plants  and 
animals,  giving  in  the  name  the  genus  and  species,  as  Apis 
mellifera,  which  he  was  first  to  describe.  He  was  also  the 
first  to  introduce  classes  and  orders,  as  we  now  understand 
them.  When  we  consider  the  amount  and  character  of  the 
work  of  the  great  Swede,  we  can  but  place  him  among  the  first, 
if  not  as  the  first,  of  naturalists.  Contemporary  with  Lin- 
naeus (also  written  Linne)  was  Geofi^roy,  who  did  valuable 
work  in  defining  new  genera.  In  the  last  half  of  the  century 
appeared  the  great  work  of  a  master  in  entomology,  DeGeer, 
who  based  his  arrangement  of  insects  on  the  character  of  wings 
and  jaws,  and  thus  discovered  another  of  Nature's  keys  to  aid 
him  in  unlocking  her  mysteries.  Kirby  well  says,  "  He  united 
in  himself  the  highest  merit  of  an  anatomist,  a  physiologist 
and  as  the  observant  historian  of  the  habits  and  economy 
of  insects,  he  is  above  all  praise.  What  a  spring  of  self-im- 
provement, enjoyment  and  public  usefulness,  is  such  an  ability 
to  observe  as  was  possessed  by  the  great  DeGeer. 

Contemporary  with  Linnaeus  and  DeGeer  was  Reaumur,  of 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF  THE   APIARY. 


61 


France,  whose  experiments  and  researches  are  of  special  in- 
terest to  the  apiarists.  Perhaps  no  entomologist  has  done 
more  to  reveal  the  natural  history  of  bees.  Especially  to  be 
commended  are  his  method  of  experimenting,  his  patience  in 
investigation,  the  elegance  and  felicity  of  his  word-pictures, 
and,  above  all,  his  devotion  to  truth.  We  shall  have  occasion 
to  speak  of  this  conscientious  and  indefatigable  worker  in  the 
great  field  of  insect  life  frequently  in  the  following  pages. 
Bonnet,  of  Geneva,  the  able  correspondent  of  Reaumur,  also 
did  valuable  work,  in  which  the  lover  of  bees  has  a  special 
interest.  Bonnet  is  specially  noted  for  his  discovery  and 
elucidation  of  parthenogenesis— that  anomalous  mode  of  repro- 
duction—as it  occurs  among  the  Aphides  or  plant-lice,  though 
he  did  not  discover  that  our  bees,  in  the  production  of  drones, 
illustrate  the  same  doctrine.  Though  the  author  of  no  system,' 
he  gave  much  aid  to  Reaumur  in  his  systematic  labor. 

At  this  same  period  systematic  entomology  received  great 
aid  from  Lyonnet's  valuable  work.  This  author  dissected  and 
explained  the  development  of  a  caterpillar.  His  descriptions 
and  illustrations  are  wonderful,  and  will  proclaim  his  ability 
as  long  as  entomology  is  studied. 

We  have  next  to  speak  of  the  great  Dane,  Fabricius— a 
student  of  Ivinn aeus— who  published  his  works  from  1775  to 
1798,  and  thus  was  revolutionizing  systematic  entomology  at 
the  same  time  that  we  of  America  were  revolutionizing  gov- 
ernment. He  made  the  mouth  organs  the  basis  of  his  classifi- 
cation, and  thus  followed  in  the  path  which  DeGeer  had  marked 
out ;  though  it  was  scarcely  beaten  by  the  latter,  while  Fabri- 
cius  left  it  wide  and  deep.  His  classes  and  orders  are  no  im- 
provement on— in  fact,  are  not  nearly  as  correct  as— his  old 
master's.  In  his  description  of  genera— where  he  pretended  to 
follow  nature— he  has  rendered  valuable  service.  In  leading 
scientists  to  study  parts,  before  little  regarded,  and  thus  to 
better  establish  affinities,  he  did  a  most  valuable  work.  His 
work  is  a  standard,  and  should  be  thoroughly  studied  by  all 
entomologists. 

Just  at  the  close  of  the  last  century  appeared  the  "great- 
est Roman  of  them  all,"  the  great  Latreille,  of  France,  whose 
name  we  have  so  frequently  used  in  the  classification  of  the 


62  THE    BEE-KEEPER  S  GUIDE; 

honey-bee.  His  is  called  the  Electivfe  System,  as  he  used 
wings,  mouth-parts,  transformations,  in  fact,  all  the  organs, 
the  entire  structure.  He  gave  us  our  Family  Apidae,  our  Genus 
Apis,  and,  as  will  be  remembered,  he  described  several  of  the 
species  of  this  genus.  In  our  study  of  this  great  man's  work, 
we  constantly  marvel  at  his  extensive  researches  and  remark- 
able talents.  Lamarck,  of  this  time,  did  very  admirable  work. 
So,  too,  did  Cuvier,  of  Napoleon's  time,  and  the  learned  Dr. 
Leach,  of  England.  Since  then  we  have  had  hosts  of  workers 
in  this  field,  and  many  worthy  of  not  only  mention  but  praise; 
yet  the  work  has  been  to  rub  up  and  garnish  rather  than  to 
create.  Of  late,  Mr.  F.  T.  Cresson,  of  Philadelphia,  has  given 
a  synopsis  of  the  Hymenoptera  of  North  America,  together 
with  a  list  of  the  described  species.  This  is  one  of  the  many 
valuable  publications  of  the  American  Entomological  Society. 
I  will  close  this  brief  history  with  a  notice  of  authors  who 
are  very  serviceable  to  such  as  may  desire  to  glean  farther  of 
the  pleasures  of  systematic  entomology  ;  only  remarking  that 
at  the  end  of  the  next  chapter  I  shall  refer  to  those  who  have 
been  particularly  serviceable  in  developing  the  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  insects,  especially  of  bees. 

VALUABLE  BOOKS   FOR  THE  STUDENT  OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

For  mere  classification,  no  work  is  equal  to  Westwood  on 
Insects — two  volumes.  In  this  the  descriptions  and  illustra- 
tions are  very  full  and  perfect,  making  it  easy  to  study  the 
families,  and  even  genera,  of  all  the  orders.  This  work  and 
the  following  are  out  of  print,  but  can  be  got  with  little  trouble 
at  second-hand  book-stores.  Kirby  and  Spence — "  Introduc- 
tion to  Entomology  " — is  a  very  complete  work.  It  treats  of 
the  classification,  structure,  habits,  general  economy  of  insects, 
and  gives  a  history  of  the  subject.  It  is  an  invaluable  work, 
and  a  great  acquisition  to  any  library.  Dr.  Packard's  "  Guide 
to  the  Study  of  Insects  "  is  a  valuable  work,  and  being  Ameri- 
can is  specially  to  be  recommended.  His  later  "  Text-Book  of 
Entomology"  is  invaluable  to  the  student.  "  Injurious  In- 
sects "  is  the  title  of  two  valuable  books,  one  by  Dr.  T.  Harris, 
3.nd  the  other   by  Mary  Treat.     The  Reports  of  Dr.  T.  Harris, 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY.  63 

Dr.  A.  Fitch,  and  Dr.  C.  V.  Riley,  the  Illinois  Entomological 
Reports,  and  the  Entomological  Reports  of  the  Departments  of 
the  Interior,  and  of  Ag-riculture,  will  also  be  found  of  great 
value  and  interest.  Cresson's  Synopsis,  already  referred  to, 
■will  be  indispensable  to  every  student  of  bees  or  other  Hyme- 
nopterous  insects.  Smith's  Entomolog-y  and  Comstock's  En- 
tomology are  indispensable  to  every  person  at  all  interested  in 
Entomology.  The  Reports  of  the  several  Experiment  Stations, 
especially  New  Jersey  and  Cornell,  are  of  great  value.  (See 
"Bibliography  "  at  the  close  of  the  first  part  of  this  volume.) 


64 


THE  BBB-KBBPRR'S  GUIDK; 


CHAPTER  IL 

ANATOMY   AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

In  this  chapter  I  shall  give  first  the  general  anatomy  of 
insects ;  then  the  anatomy,  and  still  more  wonderful  physi- 
ology, of  the  honey-bee. 

ANATOMY  OF   INSBCTS. 

In  all  insects  the  body  is  divided  into  three  well-marked  por- 
tions (Fig.  1)  ;  the  head  (Figs.  3  and  4),  which  is  strengthened 
by  cross-pieces  or  braces  (Fig.  13,  14),   containing  the  mouth 


Longitudiiial  Section  Bees''  Head  (from  Cowan.) 


a  Mentum.  e  Ligula.  k  Clypeus. 

b  Sub-mentum  /,  g  Labialpalpus.     >w  Funnel, 
c  Rods.  ft  Head-brace.         n  Paraglossa 

d  Lora.  i  Pharynx.  o  Ocellus. 

t  Duct  from  lower  head-glands.        t,  t  Labrum 


p  Brain. 

r  Occiput. 

s  Duct  from  glands. 


organs,  the  eyes,  both  the  compound  and,  when  present,  the 
simple,  and  the  antennae  ;  the  thorax,  which  is  composed  of 
three  rings,  and  gives  support  to  the  one  or  two  pairs  of  wings, 
when  present,  and  to  the  three  pairs  of  legs ;  and  the  abdo- 


OR,  MANUAI.  OF   THE  APIARV. 


65 


men,  which  is  composed  of  a  variable  number  of  rings,  and 
gives  support  to  the  external  sex-organs,  and,  when  present,  to 
the  sting.  Within  the  thorax  ( Fig.  25)  there  are  little  more  than 
muscles,  as  the  concentrated  strength  of  insects,  which  enables 

Fig.  15. 


Fig.  14. 


Cr<MS  Section  of  Head  Shounnij 
Braces  {After  Maclo^^kU.) 

c,  c  Chitinous  rods,  which  sup- 
port the  cardines. 
h,?t  Strengthening  rods. 


ITead  of  Bee  much  magnified. — OrirfiHoX. 


o  Epicranium. 
e,e  Compound  eyes. 
a^a  Antenna'. 
tnx.  2d  J.'jws  or  msixilkv. 
lc,k  Labial  ])alpi. 


c  Clypcus. 
I  Labrum. 
m  .Jaws  or  mandibles. 
t  LijjuLi. 


them  to  fly  with  such  rapidity,  dwells  in  this  confined  space. 
Within  the  abdomen,  on  the  other  hand,  are  the  sex-organs,  by 
far  the  greater  and  more  important  portions  of  the  alimentary 
canal,  and  other  important  organs. 


66  OR,    MANUAL  OF   THE   APIARY. 


ORGANS   OF  THE   HEAD. 


Of  these  the  mouth  organs  (Fig.  IS)  are  most  prominent. 
These  consist  of  an  upper  lip — labrum,  and  under  lip — labium, 
and  two  pairs  of  jaws  which  move  sidewise  ;  the  stronger, 
horny  jaws,  called  mandibles,  and  the  more  membranous,  but 
usually  longer,  named  maxillae.  The  labrum  (Fig.  15,1)  is  well 
described  in  the  name  upper  lip.  It  is  attached,  usually,  by  a 
movable  joint  to  a  similarly  shaped  piece  above  it,  called  the 
clypeus  (Fig.  15,  c),  and  this  latter  to  the  broad  epicranium 
(Fig.  15,  o),  which  carries  the  antennae,  the  compound,  and, 
when  present,  the  simple  eyes  (Fig.  3). 

The  labium  (Fig.  16)  is  not  described  by  the  name  under 
lip,  as  its  base  forms  the  floor  of  the  mouth,  and  its  tip  the 
tongue.  The  base  is  usually  broad,  and  is  called  the  mentum, 
and  from  this  extends  the  ligula  (Fig.  IS,  /),  which  in  bees  is  a 
sucking  organ  or  tongue. 

On  either  side,  near  the  junction  of  the  ligula  and  mentum, 
arises  a  jointed  organ,  rarely  absent,  called  the  labial  palpus 
(Fig.  15,  k,  k),  or,  together,  the  labial  palpi.  Just  within  the 
angle  formed  by  these  latter  and  the  ligula  arise  the  para- 
glossse  (Fig.  16,  n,  «,)  one  on  either  side.  These  are  often 
wanting,  though  never  in  bees. 

The  jaws  or  mandibles  (Fig.  15,  m,  m)  arise  one  on  either 
side  just  below  and  at  the  side  of  the  labrum,  or  upper  lip. 
These  work  sidewise  instead  of  up  and  down,  as  in  the  higher 
animals,  are  frequently  very  hard  and  sharp,  and  sometimes 
armed  with  one  or  more  teeth.  A  rudimentary  tooth  (Fig.  65, 
a,  b)  is  visible  on  the  jaws  of  drone  and  queen  bees. 

Beneath  the  jaws  or  mandibles,  and  inserted  a  little  farther 
back,  are  the  second  jaws,  or  maxillae  (Fig.  15,  mx),  less  dense 
and  firm  than  the  mandibles,  but  far  more  complex.  Each 
maxilla  arises  by  a  small  joint  (Fig.  16,  c),  the  cardo ;  next 
this  is  a  larger  joint  (Fig.  16,  k),  the  stipes  ;  from  this  extends 
on  the  inside  the  broad  lacinia  (Fig.  16,  h,  h,)  or  blade,  usually 
fringed  with  hairs  on  its  inner  edge,  towards  the  mouth  ;  while 
on  the  outside  of  the  stripes  is  inserted  the — from  one  to  sev- 
eral jointed — maxillary  palpus.  In  the  honey-bee  the  maxil- 
lary palpi  (Fig.  16,  i  i)  are  very  small,  and  consist  of  two  joints, 


OR,  MANUAL  OF  THK  APIARV. 


67 


and  in  some  insects  are   wholly  wanting-.     Sometimes,  as  in 

some  of  the  beetles,  there  is  a  third  piece  running  from  the 

stipes  between  the  palpus  and  lacinia,  called  the  galea.    The 

Fig.  16. 


a  Mentum. 

b  Sub-mentura. 
f,  c  Cardines. 
d,d  Lora. 

e  Ligula  hairs. 


2ri 

pie  of  Bee. — From  €owa?i. 


f,  g  Labial  palpi. 
h,  h  L-Lacinia. 
i,  i,  Maxillary  palpi. 
k,  k  Stipes. 
I  Li^la. 


m  Funnel  of  tongue. 

H,  Paraglossa. 

o  Opeoing  of  tongue. 


maxillae  also  move  sidewise,  and  probably  aid  in  holding  and 
turning  the  food  while  it  is  crushed  by  the  harder  jaws,  though 
in  some  cases  they,  too,  aid  in  triturating  the  food. 


68 


THE  BEK-KKEPERS'   GUIDE  ' 


These  mouth-parts  are  very  variable  in  form  in  different 
insects.  In  butterflies  and  moths,  two-winged  flies  and  bug's, 
they  are  transformed  into  a  tube,  which  in  the  last  two  groups 
forms  a  hard,  strong  beak  or  piercer,  well  exemplified  in  the 
mosquito  and  bedbug.  In  all  the  other  insects  we  find  them 
much  as  in  the  bees,  with  the  separate  parts  varying  greatly 
in  form,  to  agree  with  the  habits  and  character  of  their  posses- 
sors. No  wonder  DeGeer  and  Fabricius  detected  these  varying 
forms  as  strongly  indicative  of  the  nature  of  the  insect,  and 
no  wonder  that  by  their  use  they  were  so  successful  in  forming 
a  natural  classification. 

If,  as  seems  certain,  the  "  Doctrine  of  Natural  Selection  " 
is  well  founded,  then  a  change  in  habit  is  the  precursor  of  a 

Fig.  17. 


Microscope  Mounted  for  Dissecting. — Original. 

change  in  structure.  But  what  organs  are  so  intimately 
related  to  the  habits  of  animals,  as  the  mouth  and  other  organs 
that  have  to  do  with  food-taking  and  food-getting  ? 

Every  bee-keeper  will  receive  great  benefit  by  dissecting 
these  parts  and  studying  their  form  and  relations  for  himself. 
By  getting  his  children  interested  in  the  same,  he  will  have 
conferred  upon  them  one  of  the  rarest  of  blessings. 

To  dissect  these  parts,  first  remove  the  head  and  carefully 
pin  it  to  a  cork,  passing  the  pin  through,  well  back  between 
the  eyes.    Now  separate  the  parts  by  two  needle-points,  made 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF  TH«  APlARY.  6d 

by  inserting  a  needle  for  half  its  length  into  a  wooden  pen- 
holder, leaving  the  point  projecting  for  three-fourths  of  an 
inch.  With  one  of  these  in  each  hand  commence  operations. 
The  head  may  be  either  side  up.  Much  may  be  learned  in 
dissecting  large  insects,  like  our  largest  locusts,  even  with  no 


Antenna  of  Bee  much  magnified. — Original. 


s  Scape. 

/  Flagellum. 


i  Tracheae. 
71  Nerves. 


glass ;  but  in  all  cases,  and  especially  in  small  insects,  a  good 
lens  will  be  of  great  value.  The  best  lens  now  in  the  market 
is  the  Coddington  lens,  mounted  in  German  silver.  These  are 
imported  from  England.  They  can  be  procured  of  any  optician, 
and  cost  only  $1.50.  These  lenses  can  be  mounted  in  a  con- 
venient stand  (Fig.  17),  which  may  be  made  in  twenty  minutes. 
I  think  one  of  these  more  valuable  than  a  large  compound 
microscope,  which  costs  many  times  as  much.  Were  I  obliged 
to  part  with  either,  the  latter  would  go. 

I  require  my  students  to  do  a  great  deal  of  dissecting, 
which  they  enjoy  very  much,  and  find  very  valuable.  I  would 
much  rather  that  my  boy  would  become  interested  in  such 
study  than  to  have  him  possessor  of  infinite  gold  rings,  or  even 
a  huge  gold  watch  with  a  tremendous  charm.  Let  such  pleas- 
ing recreation  gain  the  attention  of  our  boys,  and  they  will 


^0 


THE  BEfi-KEEPER*S  GUIDE  J 


ever  contribute  to  our  delight,  and  not  sadden  us  with  anxiety 
and  fear. 

The  antennae  (Fig.  IS,  a,  a)  are  the  horn-like  jointed 
organs  situated  between,  or  below  and  in  front  of,  the  large 
compound  eyes  of  all  insects.  They  are  sometimes  short,  as 
in  the  house-fly,  and  sometimes  very  long,  as  in  crickets  and 
green  grasshoppers.  They  may  be  straight,  curved,  or 
elbowed.  In  form  they  are  very  varied,  as  thread-like,  taper- 
ing, toothed,  knobbed,  fringed,  feathered,  etc.  The  antennas 
of  many  Hymenopterous  insects  are  elbowed  (Fig.  18).  The 
long  first  joint  in  this  case  is  the  scape,  the  remaining  joints 
(Fig.  18,  F)  the  flagellum.     A  large   nerve   (Fig.  18,  n)  and  a 

Fig.  19. 
k 


Antennal  Eairs. — Original. 


n  Nerves. 
c  Cells. 


h  Tooth  hairs, 
e,  p  Pits  or  pori. 


Microscopic  Structure  of  Anten- 
TUB,  after  Hchiemem. 


b  Hairs  of  scape. 
b,  c  Hairs  of  scape  and  flagellum. 


trachea  (Fig.  18,  /)  enter  the  antenna.  The  function  of  the 
antennae  is  now  pretty  well,  if  not  wholly,  understood.  That 
they  often  serve  as  most  delicate  touch-organs  no  observing 
apiarist  can  doubt.  Tactile  nerve-ending  hairs  are  often  found 
in  great  numbers.  With  the  higher  insects,  like  most  Hyme- 
nopterons,  this  tactile  sense  of  the  antennae  is  doubtless  very 
important. 

It  is  now   fully  demonstrated  that   the   sense  of   smell  is 
located  in  the  antennas.     Sulzer,  in  the  eighteenth  century, 


OR,    MANUAL   OF   XHB   APIARY.  71 

sug-gested  that  an  unknown  sense  might  exist  in  the  antennae. 
Reaumur,  I^yonet,  Bonnet,  etc.,  thought  this  might  be  the 
sense  of  smell.  Dumeril,  I^ehrmann,  who  said  that  a  nerve 
vessel  and  muscle  entered  the  antennae,  and  Cuvier,  etc., 
thought  the  sense  of  smell  was  located  in  the  spiracles  or 
breathing-mouths.  Huber  thought  the  organ  of  smell  was 
located  in  the  mouth.  Latreille  and  Newport,  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, believed  the  antennae  contained  the  organs  of  hearing. 
Strauss-Durckheim  located  them  in  the  spiracles,  while  Wolff 
wrote  a  beautiful  monograph  to  prove  that  the  sense  of  smell 
was  situated  in  the  hypo-pharynx  beneath  the  labrum.  Erich- 
son,  in  1848,  discovered  pits  in  the  antennae— pori— covered 
with  a  membrane  (Fig.  19,  p),  which  he  thought  organs  of 
smell.  The  next  year  Burmeister  found  hairs  in  these  pits  in 
beetles,  which  varied  according  as  the  beetle  ate  plant-food  or 
carrion. 

I^eydig,  in  1855,  showed  that  Erichson  was  correct,  that 
there  were  pits  also  on  the  antenna  and  pegs  (Fig.  19, />),  or 
tooth-like  hairs,  perforated  at  the  end— olfactory  teeth.  It 
remained  for  Hauser  (1880)  to  complete  the  demonstration. 
He  experimented  with  insects  by  the  use  of  carbolic  acid,  tur- 
pentine, etc.  He  found  that  this  greatly  disturbed  the  insects 
when  their  antennae  were  intact,  and  that  even  after  he  had 
withdrawn  the  offensive  substance  the  insect  would  continue 
to  rub  its  antennae  as  if  to  remove  the  disturbing  odor— a  sort 
of  holding  its  nose.  He  then  cut  off  the  antennae  to  find  that 
the  insect  was  now  insensible  to  the  irritant.  He  next  put 
food  before  the  insects,  which  was  quickly  found  and  appro- 
priated ;  but  after  the  antennae  were  cut  off  the  food  was  found 
with  difficulty,  if  at  all.  Experiment  showed  that  in  mating 
the  same  was  true.  Insects  often  find  their  mates  when  to  us 
it  would  seem  impossible.  Thus,  I  have  known  hundreds  of 
male  moths  to  enter  a  room  by  a  small  opening  in  a  window, 
attracted  by  a  female  within  the  room.  I  have  also  known 
them  to  swarm  outside  a  closed  window  lured  by  a  female 
within.  Male  insects  have  even  been  known  to  reach  their 
mates  by  entering  a  room  through  a  stovepipe.  Yet  Hauser 
found  that  this  ability  was  gone  with  the  loss  of  the  antennae. 
Kraepelin  and  others    have  since  proved  the  correctness  of 


72  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

Hauser's  conclusions.  So  that  we  now  know  that  the  antennae, 
in  most  insects  at  least,  contain  the  organs  of  smell.  Histo- 
logically this  apparatus  is  found  to  consist  of  nerves  (Fig.  18, 
n)  which  run  from  the  brain  to  the  antennae,  and  at  the  outer, 
sensitive  end,  contain  a  cell  (Fig.  19)  with  one  or  more  nuclei. 
These  nerves  may  end  in  perforated,  tooth-like  hairs  on  the 
antennas  (Fig.  19,  h,  b,  c,  d)  in  pegs  which  have  no  chitinous 
sheath,  which  push  out  from  the  bottom  of  pits — pori — which 
exist  often  in  great  numbers  in  the  antennae  (Fig.  19,  i,  e,f.) 
While  Erichson  first  discovered  the  pits  (Fig.  19, />, /)  in  the 
antennje,  Burmeister  discovered  the  sensitive,  nerve-ending 
hairs  (Fig.  19,  a,  I,  m,  d,  h)  at  their  bottom,  and  Leydig  the 
perforated  pegs,  or  tooth-like  hairs.  We  may  state,  then,  that 
the  antennal  organ  of  smell  consists  of  a  free  or  sunken  hair- 
like body  which  opens  by  a  pore  or  canal  to  a  many  nucleated 
ganglionic  mass.  We  thus  understand  how  the  bee  finds  the 
nectar,  the  fly  the  meat,  and  the  drone  and  other  male  insects 
their  mates.  Similar  structures  in  and  about  the  mouth  are 
proved  by  Kraepelin  and  Lubbock  to  be  organs  of  taste.  Mr. 
Cheshire  speaks  of  small  pits  in  the  antennae  which  he  regards 
as  organs  of  hearing.  He  gives,  however,  no  proof  of  this, 
and  the  pits  that  he  describes  are  not  at  all  ear-like  in  their 
structure.  Dr.  Packard  says  that  there  is  no  proof  that  any 
insects  except  crickets  and  locusts  have  real  organs  of  hearing. 
He  here  refers  to  the  ear-like  organs  situated  on  the  sides  of 
the  body  of  these  insects.  Similar  organs  on  the  legs  of  the 
katydid  are  also  probably  auditory.  Dr.  C.  S.  Minot,  in  review- 
ing Graber's  work,  says  that  it  has  not  been  demonstrated  that 
even  these  tympanal  organs  are  auditory,  and  adds  that  all 
attempts  to  demonstrate  the  existence  of  an  auditory  organ  in 
insects  has  failed.  There  is  little  doubt  but  that  this  is  a  cor- 
rect statement.  That  insects  are  conscious  of  vibrations  which 
with  us  cause  sound,  I  think  no  observing  person  can  doubt. 
It  is  proved  by  the  love-note  of  the  katydid,  the  cicada  and  the 
cricket.  Every  apiarist  has  noticed  the  effect  of  various 
sounds  made  by  the  bees  upon  their  comrades  of  the  hive  ; 
and  how  contagious  is  the  sharp  note  of  anger,  the  low  hum  of 
fear,  and  the  pleasant  tone  of  a  new  swarm  as  it  commences 
to  enter  its   new  home.     Now,  whether  insects  take  note  of 


MANUAL  OK  THE  APIARY. 


73 


these  vibrations,  as  we  recognize  pitch,  or  whether  they  iust 
distinguish  the  tremor,  I  think  no  one  knows.  There  is  some 
reason  to  believe  that  their  delicate  touch-organs  may  enable 
them  to  discriminate  between  vibrations,  even  more  accurately 
than  can  we  by  the  use  of  our  ears.  A  slight  jar  will  quickly 
awaken  a  colony  of  hybrids,  while  a  loud  noise  will  pass  un- 
noticed. If  insects  can  appreciate  with  great  delicacy  the 
different  vibratory  conditions  of  the  air  by  an  excessive  devel- 
opment of  the  sense  of  touch,  then  undoubtedly  the  antenns 
may.be  great  aids.     Dr.  Clemens  thought   that   insects  could 


Fig.  20. 


Fig.  21. 


Facets   of  Compound 
Eyes, 

after  Dujardin. 

F  Facets. 
S  Hairs. 


Section  of  Compound  Eye,  after  Oagenlxmer. 


c  Cornea. 
R  Rods. 


C  Cells. 
0  Nerve. 


only  detect  atmospheric  vibrations.  So,  too,  thought  Linnaeus 
and  Bonnet.  Mayer  has  proved  that  the  hairs  on  the  antennae 
of  mosquitoes  vibrate  to  different  sounds.  From  our  present 
knowledge,  this  view  seems  the  most  reasonable  one,  for  noth- 
ing answering  in  the  least  to  ears,  structurally,  has  yet  been 
discovered. 

The  eyes  are  of  two  kinds,  the  compound,  which  are 
always  present  in  mature  insects,  and  the  ocelli  or  simple 
eyes,  which  may  or  may  not  be  present.  When  present  there 
are  usually  three  of  these  ocelU  (Fig.  3),  which,  if  joined  by 
lines,  will  describe  a  triangle,  in  the  vertices  of  whose  angles 


74 


THE  bee-keeper's  guide  ; 


are  the  ocelli.  Rarely  there  are  but  two  ocelli,  and  very  rarely 
but  one. 

The  simple  eyes  (Fig.  3,///)  are  circular,  and  possess  a 
cornea,  lens  or  cone,  and  retina,  which  receives  the  nerve  of 
sight. 

From  the  experiments  of  Reaumur  and  Swammerdam, 
which  consisted  in  covering  the  eyes  with   varnish,  they  con- 

FiG.  22. 


c  Facet. 
h  Hair. 


Longitudbtal  Section  Eye. — From  Cowan, 
cc  Lenses. 

;)lp2p3  Rods. 


m  Basilar  membrane, 
o  Optic  nerve. 


eluded  that  vision  with  these  simple  eyes  is  very  indistinct, 
though  by  them  the  insect  can  distinguish  light.  Some  have 
thought  that  these  simple  eyes  were  for  vision  at  slight  dis- 
tances, lyubbock,  Forel,  and  others,  are  doubtless  correct  in 
the  view  that  the  ocelli  are  for  near  vision,  and  for  use  in  dark 


OR,  MAlfUAL  OF   THE  APIARY. 


75 


places.     Larvae,  like  spiders   and   most   myriapods,  have  only 
simple  eyes. 

The  compound  eyes  (Fig.  3)  are   simply  a  cluster  of  simple 
eyes,  so  crowded  that  they  arc  hexagonal  {Fig.  20).     The  cornea 
or  facet  (Fig.  20)  is  transparent,  modified,  chitinous  skin.   Just 
Fig.  23. 
.C 

Fig.  24. 


-cc 


l» 

M" 

i^E 

Longitudinal  Section  of  part 
of  Eye,  after  Cowan. 


c  Facet. 
n  Nuclei. 


cc  Cones. 
r  Retinulae. 


2iod«  much  tnagnifled, 
after  Ihijardin. 


within  each  facet  is  the  crystalline  lens  (Fig.  22,  cc)  or  crystal- 
line cone  back  of  which  extend  the  rods  (Fig.  21,  J?,  Fig.  23,  cc) 
which  consist  of  chitinous  threads.  Each  rod  is  surrounded 
by  rounded  columns,  eight  in  bees  (Fig.  24)— retinulae— which 


76  THE  bee-keeper's  guide  ; 

are  enclosed  by  pigment  membranes.  This  serves  in  the  black 
lining-  of  our  own  eyes  and  of  optical  instruments,  to  limit  or 
absorb  the  rays  of  light.  At  the  base  of  the  rods  is  spread  the 
nervous  termination  of  the  great  optic  nerves  (Fig.  21),  which 
extend  from  very  near  the  brain,  and  which,  before  reaching 
the  eye,  passes  through  the  three  ganglionic  enlargements 
(Fig.  22).  Unlike  the  same  in  vertebrate  eyes,  the  rods  point 
forward. 

It  is  thought  that  the  optic  nerve  is  very  short,  and  that 
the  retina  of  other  higher  animals  is  represented  by  the  three 
enlargements  (Fig.  22),  which,  as  in  higher  animals,  are  fibrous 
cellular  and  ganglionic,  and  by  the  central  rods  of  the  reti- 
nulae.  The  sensitive  portion  is  doubtless  the  end  of  these  rods. 
Insects,  like  bees,  have  a  well-developed  crystalline  cone  (Fig. 
23),  and  such  eyes  are  called  eucone  ;  others  have  this  less  de- 
veloped, and  their  eyes  are  called  pseudocone. 

The  old  theory  of  Leeuwenhock,  Gottsche,  and  Platean, 
that  each  of  the  parts  of  a  compound  eye,  each  ommatidium, 
forms  a  distinct  image,  and  these  together  make  a  compound 
whole,  as,  do  our  two  eyes,  the  images  overlapping,  is  now 
abandoned  for  the  mosaic  theory  of  Muller.  Lubbock  argues 
strongly  for  this  view,  and  nearly  all  now  accept  it  as  true. 
Each  of  the  ommatidia  give  a  direct,  not  reverse,  image,  as  do 
the  ocelli,  and  each  an  image  of  only  a  point.  Thus,  the  image 
is  a  true  mosaic,  as  Muller  called  it.  The  crystalline  cone 
covered  with  black  pigment  permits  only  a  point  to  be  imag- 
ined, and  so  each  of  the  separate  eyes  or  ommatidia  images  a 
separate  point  of  the  object  seen,  and  all  the  entire  object. 
Lubbock  argues  that  the  compound  eyes  do  not  determine  form, 
but  only  motion,  and  that  is  what  would  be  useful  to  protect  the 
insect.     Delicate  tracheae  pass  into  the  eyes  between  the  rods. 

The  color  of  eyes  varies  very  much,  owing  to  the  pigment. 
In  some  of  the  bees,  wasps  and  Diptera,  or  two-winged  flies, 
the  coloration  is  exceedingly  beautiful.  Girschner  thinks  that 
insects  with  highly  colored  eyes  do  not  see  as  well  as  others. 
Often  the  irridescence  or  play  of  colors,  as  the  angle  of  vision 
changes,  is  wonderfully  rich. 

The  form,  size,  and  position  of  eyes  vary  much,  as  seen  by 
noticing  the  eyes   (Fig.  3,  4)  of  drones   and  workers.     Some- 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY.  77 

times,  as  in  bees  (Fig-.  3,  4),  the  eyes  are  hairy,  the  hairs  aris- 
ing from  between  the  facets.  These  hairs  are  protective,  and 
very  likely  tactile.  Usually  the  eyes  are  naked.  The  number 
of  simple  eyes  which  form  the  compound  eye  is  often  pro- 
digious. There  may  be  25,000  in  a  single  compound  eye. 
There  are  4,000  or  5,000  in  the  worker-bee. 

The  compound  eyes  are  motionless,  but  from  their  size  and 
sub-spherical  shape  they  give  quite  a  range  of  vision.  It  is 
not  likely  that  they  are  capable  of  adjustment  to  accord  with 
different  distances,  and  it  has  been  supposed,  from  the  direct, 
darting  flight  of  bees  to  their  hives,  and  the  awkward  work 
they  make  in  finding  a  hive  when  moved  only  a  short  distance, 
that  their  eyes  are  best  suited  to  long  vision. 

Sir  John  L,ubbock  has  proved,  by  some  interesting  experi- 
ments with  strips  of  colored  paper,  that  bees  can  distinguish 
colors.  Honey  was  placed  on  a  blue  strip,  beside  several 
others  of  various  colors.  In  the  absence  of  the  bees  he  changed 
the  position  of  this  strip,  and  upon  their  return  the  bees  went 
to  the  blue  strip  rather  than  to  the  old  position.  Our  practical 
apiarists  have  long  been  aware  of  this  fact,  and  have  con- 
formed their  practice  to  this  knowledge,  in  giving  a  variety  of 
colors  to  their  hives.  Apiarists  have  frequently  noted  that 
bees  have  a  rare  faculty  of  marking  positions,  but  for  slight 
distances  their  sense  of  color  will  correct  mistakes  which  would 
occur  if  position  alone  were  their  guide.  Platean  argues  that 
insects  are  little  guided  by  color,  as  they  find  flowers  with  no 
color,  or  the  color  obscured.  This  does  not  prove  that  color 
is  not  an  aid,  but  that  another  sense — evidently  of  smell — 
supplements  the  sense  of  sight. 

Lrubbock's  experiments  prove  that  ants  and  wasps  also 
distinguish  colors.  This  is  doubtless  true  of  all  insects  that 
love  sweets  and  are  attracted  by  flowers.  I  have  noticed  a 
curious  blunder  made  by  bees  in  case  of  two  houses  which  are 
just  alike,  but  five  rods  apart.  Honey  placed  on  one  porch  is 
scarce  found  by  bees  before  the  corresponding  porch  of  the 
other  house  will  be  swarming  with  bees  also,  though  no  honey 
is  near  it.  The  bees  are  simply  fooled.  This  experiment  has 
been  tried  several  times,  so  there  can  be  no  mistake.  It  shows 
that  sight,  not  mere  position,  nor  yet  odor,  is  guide,  even  at 


78  XHK  bee-keeper's  guide; 

long  distances.     This  disproves  the  general  view  that  insects 
can  see  but  at  very  short  range. 

Within  the  head  is  the  large  brain  (Fig.  27,  b),  which  will  be 
described  as  we  come  to  speak  of  the  nervous  system.  There 
are  also  chitinous  bars  (Fig.  14)  and  braces  within,  which  serve 
greatly  to  strengthen  this  portion  of  the  insect. 

APPENDAGES  OF  THE  THORAX. 

The  organs  of  flight  are  the  most  noticeable  appendages 
of  the  thorax.  The  wings  are  usually  four,  though  the  Diptera 
have  but  two,  and  some  insects — as  the  worker-ants — have 
none.  The  front  or  primary  wings  (Fig.  2)  are  usually  larger 
than  the  secondary  or  hind  wings,  and  thus   the  mesothoracic 

Fig.  25. 


Muscles  of  Thorax,  after  Wolff. 

L  Muscles  to  raise  front  wing.        D  Muscles  to  lower  front  wing. 
A  Muscles  of  hind  wing. 

or  middle  ring  of  the  thorax,  to  which  they  are  attached,  is 
usually  larger  than  the  metathorax  or  third  ring.  The  wings 
consist  of  a  broad  frame-work  of  veins  (Fig.  2),  covered  by  a 
thin,  tough  raembrane.  The  main  ribs  or  veins  are  variable 
in  number,  while  towards  the  extremity  of  the  wing  are  more 
or  less  cross-veins,  dividing  this  portion  of  the  wings  into  more 
or  less  cells.  In  the  higher  groups  these  cells  are  few,  and 
quite  important  in  classifying.  Especially  useful  in  group- 
ing bees  into  their  families   and   genera  are  the  cells  in  the 


OR,  MANUAL   OP  THE   APIARY.  79 

second  row,  from  the  front  or  costal  edge  of  the  primary  win^s 
called  the  sub-co«tal  cells.  Thus,  in  the  genus  Apis  there  fre 
three  such  cells  (Fig.  2-6,  7,  8),  while  in  the  Meiipona  there 
are  only  two.  The  ribs  or  veins  consist  of  a  tube  within  a 
tube  the  inner  one  forming  an  air-tube,  the  outer  one  carrying 
blood.  On  the  costal  edge  of  the  secondary  wings  we  often 
find  hooks  (Fig.  2,  h)  to  attach  them  to  the  front  wingl 

The  wings  are  moved  by  powerful  muscles,  compactly 
located  xn  the  thorax  (Fig.  25),  the  strength  of  which  is  very 
great.  The  rapidity  of  the  vibrations  of  the  wings  when  flight 
IS  rapid,  is  almost  beyond  computation.     Marey  found  by  his 


Fig.  26. 


Hairs  of  Bees.— Original. 

ingenious  and  graphic  method  that  they  number  in  the  bee  190 
in  a  second.  This  may  be  far  from  the  maximum.  Think  of 
a  tiny  fly  out-stripping  the  fleetest  horse  in  the  chase,  and 
then  marvel  at  this  wondrous  mechanism. 

The  legs  (Fig.  1,  g,  g,  g-)  are  six  in  number  in  all  mature 
insects,  two  on  the  lower  side  of  each  ring  of  the  thorax 
These  are  long  or  short,  weak  or  strong,  according  to  the  habit 
of  the  insect.  Each  leg  consists  of  the  following  joints  or 
parts:  The  coxa  (Fig.  67, c)-,  which  moves  like  a  ball-and- 
socket  joint  in  the  close-fitting  coxal  cavities  of  the  body- 
rings.  Next  to  this  follow  in  order  the  broad  trochanter  (Fig. 
67,  T,)  which  is  double  in  several  families  of  Hymenoptera  like 
the  very  valuable  ichneumon  and  chalcid  flies,  the  large  broad 
femur  (Fig.  66,  F),  the  long,  slim  tibia  (Fig.  67,  T),  frequently 
bearing  strong  spines  at  or  near  its  end,  called  tibial  spurs, 
and  followed  by  the  from  one  to  five  jointed  tarsi  (Fig.  67,  1, 
2,  3,  4,  S).  All  these  parts  move  freely  upon  each  other,  and 
will  vary  in  form  to  agree  with  their  use.     At  the  end  of  the 


80  THB    BEE- keeper's  GUIDE  *, 

last  tarsal  joint  are  two  hooked  claws  (Fig.  68),  between  which 
are  the  pulvilli,  which  are  not  air-pumps  as  usually  described, 
but  rather  glands,  which  secrete  a  sticky  substance  which  en- 
ables insects  to  stick  to  a  smooth  wall,  even  though  it  be 
above  them.  The  legs,  and  in  fact  the  whole  crust,  are  more  or 
less  dense  and  hard,  owing  to  the  deposit  within  the  structure 
of  chitine. 

The  hairs  of  insects  (Fig.  26)  are  very  various  in  form, 
development  and  function.  Some  are  short,  others  long  ;  some 
simple,  others  beautifully  feathered ;  some  are  tactile,  like 
those  of  the  eyes  of  the  bees,  some  are  protective  and  for 
warmth,  and  some  are  used  as  brushes,  combs,  and  for  collect- 
ing, transferring  and  carrying  pollen. 

INTERNAL   ANATOMY   OF   INSECTS. 

The  muscles  of  insects' are  usually  whitish.  Sometimes  I 
have  noticed  quite  a  pinkish  hue  about  the  muscles  of  the 
thorax.  They  vary  in  form  and  position  to  accord  with  their 
use.  The  mechanism  of  contraction  is  the  same  as  in  higher 
animals.  The  ultimate  fibers  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  when 
highly  magnified,  show  the  striae  or  cross-lines,  the  same  as  do 
the  voluntary  muscles  of  vertebrates,  and  are  very  beautiful  as 
microscopic  objects.  The  fibers  of  each  separate  muscle  are  not 
bound  together  by  a  membrane,  as  in  higher  animals.  In  in- 
sects the  muscles  are  widely  distributed,  though,  as  we  should 
expect,  they  are  concentrated  in  the  thorax  and  head.  In  insects 
of  swiftest  flight,  like  the  bee,  the  thorax  (Fig.  25)  is  almost  en- 
tirely composed  of  muscles ;  the  cesophagus,  which  carries  the 
food  to  the  stomach,  being  very  small.  At  the  base  of  the 
jaws  (Fig.  65)  the  muscles  are  large  and  firm.  The  number  of 
muscles  is  astounding.  Lyonet  counted  over  3,000  in  a  single 
caterpillar,  nearly  eight  times  as  many  as  are  found  in  the 
human  body.  The  strength,  too,  of  insects  is  prodigious. 
There  must  be  quality  in  muscles,  for  muscles  as  large  as  those 
of  the  elephant,  and  as  strong  as  those  of  the  flea,  would  hardly 
need  the  fulcrum  which  the  old  philosopher  demanded  in  order 
to  move  the  world.  Fleas  have  been  made  to  draw  miniature 
cannon,  chains  and  wagons  many  hundred  times  heavier  than 
themselves. 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF   THE   APIARY.  gj 

The  nerves   of  insects  are   in   no   wise  peculiar,  so  far  as 
known,  except  xn  position.     Each  nerve  consists  of  a  bundle  of 
fibers,  some  of  which   are  sensitive,  and   some   motor.     As  xn 
Fig.  27. 


Diagram  showing  Internal  Organs  of  Bee,  {modined) ,  from  Cowan 


JTHead. 
T  Thorax. 
A  Abdomen. 
6  Brain. 
R  Rectum. 


ig  Supra  oesophageal  ganglia. 
gg  Ganglia  on  nerve  cord. 

as  Air  sacs. 

tt  Trachete. 
mt  Malpighian  tubules. 


M  Honey-stomach. 

s  Stomach. 
m  Stomach-mouth. 

i  Ileum. 
r,g  Rectal  glands. 


our  bodies,  some  are  knotted,  or  have  ganglia,  and  some  are  not. 
The  mam  nervous  cord  is  double,  and  has  several  enlarge- 
ments (Fig.  27,  28)  or  ganglia.     It  runs  along  the  under  or  ven- 


82  THE  BEE-KEKPKR*S  GUIDE; 

tral  side  of  the  body,  separates  near  the  head,  and  after  pass- 
ing around  the  cesophagus,  enlarges  to  form  the  largest  of  the 
ganglia,  which  serves  as  a  brain  (Fig.  27,  28).     The  uncovered 

Fig.  28. 


M 

41  & 

Xtniont  System  of  Brotie,  after  Duncan. 

brain  shows  marked  convolutions  (Fig.  30).  Dujardin  states 
that  the  brain  of  the  worker-bee  is  1-174  of  the  body  ;  in  the 
drone  it  is  relatively  much   smaller ;  the  ant,  1-286 ;  the  ich- 


OR,    MANUAI.  OF  THE   APIARY.  83 

neumon,  1-400 ;  water  beetle,  1-4200.  In  man  it  is  1-40.  So 
we  see  that  the  bee  is  at  the  summit  of  insect  intelligence,  as 
man  is  of  the  vertebrate.  The  convolutions  (Fig.  30)  add  to 
the  argument. 

From  the  brain  many  fibers  extend  on  each  side  to  the 
compound  eyes.  The  minute  nerves  extend  everywhere,  and 
in  squeezing  out  the  viscera  of  an  insect,  are  easily  visible. 

In  the  larva  the  nerve  cord  is  much  as  in  the  adult  insect, 
except  the  ganglia  are  more  numerous.  Girard  says,  that  at 
first  in  the  larva  of  the  bee  there  are  seventeen  ganglia.  The 
supra-oesophageal  of  the  brain,  three  sub-cesophageal,  three 
thoracic — one  for  each  ring — and  ten  abdominal.  Soon  the 
three  sub-oesophageal  merge  into  one,  as  do  also  the  last  three 
abdominal,  when  there  are  in   all  thirteen  (Fig.  31).     In  the 

Fig.  29. 


Brain  of  Insect,  after  Dujardin. 
a  a  Antennae,    ooo  Ocelli. 

pupa,  the  last  two  of  the  thorax,  and  the  first  two  abdominal, 
unite  into  the  twin-like  post-thoracic  (Fig.  31),  which  supplies 
the  meso,  and  meta-thoracic  legs,  and  both  pairs  of  wings  with 
nerves.  The  fourth  and  fifth  ganglia  also  unite,  so  that  the 
adult  worker-bee  has  nine  ganglia  in  all.  The  brain  or  supra- 
oesophageal  (Fig.  27),  supplies  nerves  to  the  compound  eyes, 
ocelli,  antennae  and  labrum  ;  the  sub-cesophageal  gives  off 
nerves  to  the  mandibles,  maxillae,  and  labium  ;  the  first  gan- 
glion of  the  thorax  sends  nerves  to  the  anterior  legs.  There 
are  only  four  abdominal  ganglia  in  the  drone.  The  brain 
(Fig.  29,  30),  like  our  own,  is  enclosed  in  membranes,  is  com- 
posed of  white  and  gray  matter,  and  is  undoubtedly  the  seat  of 
intelligence.     Hence,  as  we  should  suppose,  the  brain  of  the 


84 


THE   BEK-KEKPER'S   GUIDE, 


worker  is  much  larger  than  that  of  either  the  drone  or  queen. 
The  ganglia  along  the  cord  are  the  seat  of  reflex  acts  the  same 
as  is  the  gray  matter  of  our  own  spinal  cord.  Indeed,  the 
beheaded  bee  uses  its  members  much  more  naturally  than  do 
the  higher  animals  after  they  have  lost  their  heads.  This  may 
arise  from  their  more  simple  organism,  or  from  a  higher  devel- 
opment of  the  ganglia  in  question. 

The  organs  of  circulation  in  insects  are  quite  insignificant. 
The  heart  (Fig.  32,  H)  is  a  long  tube  situated  along  the  back, 
to.  which  it  is  held  by  large  muscles  (Fig.  32,  m),  and  receives 

Fig.  31. 


Fig.  30. 


Brain  of  Bee,  from  Cowan. 


Nenxyus  System  of  Worker  Larva, 
after  Duncan. 


the  blood  at  valvular  openings  (Fig.  32  o,  33  a,)  along  its  sides 
which  only  permit  the  fluid  to  pass  in,  when,  by  contraction,  it 
is  forced  toward  the  head  and  emptied  into  the  general  cavity. 
Valves  prevent  the  blood  from  flowing  back  (Fig.  33,  b.)  Thus 
the  heart  only  serves  to  keep  the  blood  in  motion. 

There  are  no  vessels   to  carry   the  blood   to  the  various 
organs,  nor  is  this  necessary,  for  the  nutritive  fluid  every- 


OR,    MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY. 


8S 


where  bathes  the  digestive  canal,  and  thus  easily  receives 
nutriment,  or  gives  waste  by  osmosis  ;  everywhere  surrounds 
the  tracheae  or  air-tubes— the  insect's  lungs— and  thus  receives 
that  most  needful  of  all  food,  oxygen,  and  gives  the  baneful 
carbonic  acid ;  everywhere  touches  the  various  organs,  and 
gives  and  takes  as  the  vital  operations  of  the  animal  require. 

The  heart,  like  animal  vessels,  generally,  consists  of  an 
outer  serous  membrane,  an  inner,  epithelial  coat,  and  a  middle 
muscular  layer.  Owing  to  the  opaque  crust,  the  pulsations  of 
the  heart  can  not  generally  be  seen  ;  but  in  some  transparent 
larv«,  like  many  maggots,  some  parasites— those  of  our  com- 
mon cabbage  butterfly  show  this  admirably— and  especially  in 
aquatic  larvs,  the  pulsations  are  plainly  visible,  and  are  most 
interesting  objects  of  study. 

The  heart,  as  shown  by  Lyonet,  is  held  to  the  dorsal  wall 
by  muscles  (Fig.  32,  m).     Beneath  the  heart  are  muscles  which, 


Fig.  32. 


Fig.  33. 


Portion  of  Heart  of  an  Insect,  after  Packard. 
JST  Heart,      m  Muscles,     o  Openings. 

Diagram  of  Heart,  from  Cowan. 


to  quote  from  Girard,  form  a  sort  of  horizontal  diaphragm  (Fig. 
34,  d),  which  as  Graber  shows  contract,  and  thus  aid  circulation. 
The  blood  is  light  colored,  and  entirely  destitute  of  red 
discs  or  corpuscles,  which  are  so  numerous  in  the  blood  of 
higher  animals,  and  which  give  our  blood  its  red  color.  The 
function  of  these  red  discs  is  to  carry  oxygen,  and  as  oxygen  is 
carried  everywhere  through  the  body  by  the  ubiquitous  air- 
tubes  of  insects,  we  see  the  red  discs  are  not  needed.  Except 
for  these  semi-fluid  discs,  which  are  real  organs,  and  nourished 
as  are  other  organs,  the  blood  of  higher  animals  is  entirely 


86  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

fluid,  in  all  normal  conditions,  and  contains  not  the  organs 
themselves,  or  any  part  of  them,  but  only  the  elements,  which 
are  absorbed  by  the  tissue  and  converted  into  the  organs,  or, 
to  be  scientific,  are  assimilated.  The  blood  of  insects  is  nearly 
destitute  of  discs,  having  only  white  corpuscles.  The  white 
corpuscles  are  called  leucocytes.  They  are  now  known  to  act 
as  so  many  animals,  and  are  powerful  for  good  in  destroying 
rnicrobes.  We  thus  call  them  phagocytes.  These  phagocytes, 
in  insect  transformations,  remove,  we  may  say  eat  up,  the  no 
longer  useful  organs.     It  is   this  way  that   a  tadpole's  tail  is 

Fig.  34. 


Cross  Section  of  Bee,  after  Cheshire. 

h  Heart.  Tr.  Tracheae. 

St.  Stomach.  ga  GangUoa. 

d  Diaphragm. 

removed.  This  process  is  known  as  phagocytosis.  The  leu- 
cocytes are  also  found  in  the  digested  food,  and  like  the  same 
in  higher  animals,  are  amoeboid.  Schonfeld  has  shown  that 
the  blood,  chyle,  the  digested  food,  and  larval  food,  are  much 
the  same. 

The  respiratory  or  breathing  system  of  insects  consists  of 
a  very  complicated  system  of  air-tubes  (Fig.  1,  27).  These 
tubes  (Fig.  35),  which  are  constantly  branching,  and  almost 
infinite  in  number,  are  very  peculiar  in  their  Mructure.  They 
are  composed  of  a  spiral  thread,  and  thus  resemble  a  hollow 
cylinder  formed  by  closely  winding  a  fine  wire  spirally  about  a 
rod,  so  as  to  cover  it,  and  then  withdrawing  the  latter,  leaving 


OR,    MANUAL   OF   THB   APIARY.  87 

the  wire  unmoved.  This  spiral  elastic  thread,  like  the  rings 
of  cartilage  in  our  own  trachea,  serves  to  make  the  tubes  rigid  ; 
and  like  our  trachea — wind  pipe — so  these  tracheae  or  air-tubes 
in  insects  are  lined  within  and  covered  without  by  a  thin 
membrane.  Nothing  is  more  surprising  and  interesting  than 
this  labyrinth  of  beautiful  tubes,  as  seen  in  dissecting  a  bee 
under  the  microscope.  I  have  frequently  detected  myself 
taking  long  pauses,  in  making  dissections  of  the  honey-bee, 
as  my  attention  would  be  fixed  in  admiration  of  this  beautiful 
breathing  apparatus.  In  the  bee  these  tubes  expand  in  large 
lung-like  sacs  (Fig.  1,/),  one  on  each  side  of  the  body.  Doubt- 
less some  of  my  readers  have  associated  the  quick  movements 
and  surprising  activity  of  birds  and  most  mammals  with  their 
well  developed  lungs,  so  in  such  animals  as  the  bees,  we  see 
the  relation  between  this  intricate  system  of  air-tubes — their 

Fig.  35. 


A  Trachea,  magnified. — Original. 

lungs — and  the  quick,  busy  life  which  has  been  proverbial  of 
them  since  the  earliest  time.  Along  the  sides  of  the  body  are 
the  spiracles  or  breathing-mouths,  which  vary  in  number. 
The  full-grown  larva  has  twenty,  while  the  imago  has  seven 
pairs  ;  two  on  the  thorax — one  on  the  prothorax,  and  one  on  the 
metathorax — and  five  on  the  abdomen.  The  drone  has  one  more 
on  each  side  of  the  abdomen.  We  see,  then,  that  to  strangle  an 
insect  we  would  not  close  the  mouth,  but  these  spiracles  along 
the  sides  of  the  body.  We  now  understand  why  the  bee  so 
soon  dies  when  the  body  is  daubed  with  honey.  These  spiracles 
are  armed  with  a  complex  valvular  arrangement  which  ex- 
cludes dust  or  other  noxious  particles.  From  these  extends 
the  labyrinth  of  air-tubes   (Fig.  1,/,/,  27 /,/),  which   carries 


88  THE    BEE-KKKPERS  GUIDE  ; 

vitalizing  oxygen  into  every  part  of  the  insect  organism.  As 
shown  long  ago  by  Leydig  and  Weismann,  these  air-tubes  are 
but  an  invagination  of  the  derm  of  the  insect.  What  is  more 
curious,  these  tracheae  are  molted  or  shed  with  the  skin  of  the 
larvae.  In  the  more  active  insects — as  in  bees — the  main 
tracheae,  one  on  each  side  of  the  abdomen,  are  expanded  into 
large  air-sacs  (Fig.  1,/).  Insects  often  show  a  respiratory 
motion,  which  in  bees  is  often  very  marked.  Newport  has 
shown  that  in  bees  the  rapidity  of  the  respiration,  which  varies 
from  twenty  to  sixty  per  minute,  gauges  the  heat  in  the  hive, 
and  thus  we  see  why  bees  in  times  of  severe  cold,  which  they 
essay  to  keep  at  bay  by  forced  respiration,  consume  much 
food,  exhale  much  foul  air  and  moisture,  and  are  liable  to 
disease.  Newport  found  that  in  cases  of  severe  cold  there 
would  be  quite  a  rise  of  mercury  in  a  thermometer  which  he 
suspended  in  the  hive  amidst  the  cluster. 

In  the  larval  state,  many  insects  breathe  by  fringe-like 
gills.  The  larval  mosquito  has  gills  in  the  form  of  hairy  tufts, 
while  in  the  larval  dragon-fly  the  gills  are  inside  the  rectum, 
or  last  part  of  the  intestine.  The  insect,  by  a  muscular  effort, 
draws  the  water  slowly  in  at  the  anus,  where  it  bathes  these 
singularly  placed  branchiae,  and  then  makes  it  serve  a  further 
turn  by  forcibly  expelling  it,  when  the  insect  is  sent  darting 
ahead.  Thus,  this  curious  apparatus  not  only  furnishes 
oxygen,  but  also  aids  in  locomotion.  In  the  pupae  of  insects 
there  is  little  or  no  motion,  yet  important  organic  changes  are 
taking  place — the  worm-like,  ignoble,  creeping,  often  repulsive, 
larva,  is  soon  to  appear  as  the  airy,  beautiful,  active,  almost 
ethereal  imago.  So  oxygen,  the  most  essential — the  sine  qua 
non — of  all  animal  food  is  still  needed.  The  bees  are  too  wise 
to  seal  the  brood-cell  with  impervious  wax,  but  rather  add  the 
porous  capping,  made  of  wax  from  old  comb  and  pollen.  The 
pupae,  no  less  than  the  larvae  of  some  two-winged  flies  which 
live  in  water,  have  long  tubes  which  reach  far  out  for  the 
vivifying  air,  and  are  thus  called  rat-tailed.  Even  the  pupae 
of  the  mosquito,  awaitifig  in  its  liquid  home  the  glad  time 
when  it  shall  unfold  its  tiny  wings  and  pipe  its  war-note,  has 
a  similar  arrangement  to  secure  the  gaseous  pabulum. 

The  digestive  apparatus  of  insects  is  very  interesting,  and. 


OR,    MANUAL   O]?   THE   APIARY.  89 

as  in  our  own  class  of  animals,  varies  very  much  in  length  and 
complexity,  as  the  hosts  of  insects  vary  in  their  habits.  As  in 
mammals  and  birds,  the  length,  with  some  striking  exceptions, 
varies  with  the  food.  Carnivorous  or  flesh-eating  insects  have 
a  short  alimentary  canal,  while  in  those  that  feed  on  vegetable 
food  it  is  much  longer. 

The  mouth  I  have  already  described.  Following  this  (Fig. 
27)  is  the  throat  or  pharynx,  then  the  oesophagus  or  gullet  (Fig. 
36,  o),  which  may  expand,  as  in  the  bee,  to  form  the  honey- 
stomach  (Fig.  36,  hs),    may   have  an   attached  crop  like    the- 

Fig.  36. 


Cross  Section  of  Ileum,  after 
8chiernenz. 


Alimentary  Canal  of  ffoney-Bee,  modified,  from  Wolff. 

0  CEsophagus.  sm.  Stomach-mouth. 
-Tis  Honey-stomach.  s  True  stomach. 

c  Urinary  tubes.  i  Small  intestine  or  ileum. 

rg  Rectal  glands.  r  Large  intestine  or  rectum. 

chicken,  or  may  run  as  a  uniform  tube,  as  in  the  human  body, 
to  the  true  stomach  (Fig.  36,  s).  Following  this  is  the  intes' 
tine — separated  by  some  authors  into  an  ileum  (Fig.  36,  i),  and 
a  rectum  which  ends  in  the  vent  or  anus. 

The  entire  alimentary  canal,  except  the  stomach,  is  devel- 
oped from  the  ectoderm,  or  skin  derm,  and  all  is  shed  in 
molting.  The  stomach,  often  called  the  mid-stomach,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  fore  and  hind,  is  derived  from  the  endo- 
derm,  and  is  not  molted.  Connected  with  the  mouth  are 
salivary  glands  (Fig.  58,  59),  which  are  structurally  much  like 


90  The  BEE-iftBBPER  s  Guide  ; 

those  in  higher  animals.  There  is  an  inner  and  an  outef 
chitinous  layer,  and  the  intervening  cellular  or  epithelial, 
where  secretion  takes  place. 

In  those  larvae  that  form  cocoons  these  are  the  source  of 
silk.  In  the  glands  this  is  a  viscid  fluid,  but  as  it  leaves  the 
duct  it  changes  instantly  into  the  gossamer  thread.  Bees  and 
wasps  use  this  saliva  in  forming  their  structuries.  With  it  and 
mud  some  wasps  make  mortar ;  with  it  and  wood,  others  form 
their  paper  cells  ;  with  it  and  wax,  the  bee  fashions  the  rib- 
bons that  are  to  form  the  beautiful  comb.  As  will  be  seen 
later,  these  glands  are  very  complex  in  bees,  and  the  function 
of  the  secretion  very  varied  in  both   composition  and  function. 

Lining  the  entire  alimentary  canal  are  mucus  glands 
which  secrete  a  viscid  fluid  that  keeps  the  tube  soft  and  pro- 
motes the  passage  of  food.  These  lining  cells  also  absorb,  and 
may  secrete  a  digestive  fluid. 

The  true  stomach  (Fig.  36,  s;  27  S),  is  very  muscular; 
and  often  a  gizzard,  as  in  the  crickets,  where  its  interior  is 
lined  with  teeth.  The  interior  of  the  stomach  is  glandular, 
for  secreting  the  gastric  juice  which  is  to  liquefy  the  food,  that 
it  may  be  absorbed,  or  pass  through  the  walls  of  the  canal  into 
the  blood. 

Appended  to  the  anterior  end  of  the  stomach  are  the  from 
two  to  eight  coeca,  or,  as  in  some  beetles,  very  numerous  villi 
or  tubules.  These  are  believed  by  Plateau  and  others  to  be 
pancreatic  in  function.  These  are  not  found  in  bees.  Attached 
to  the  lower  portion  of  the  stomach  are  the  urinary  or  Mal- 
pighian  tubules  (Fig.  27,  m,  t),  so  named  from  their  discoverer, 
Malpighi.  There  may  be  two  to  eight  long  tubes,  or  many 
short  ones  as  in  the  bees,  where  we  find  150.  The  finding  in 
these  of  urea,  uric  acid  and  the  urates  settles  the  matter  of  their 
function.  Cuvier  and  others  thought  these  bile-tubules. 
Siebold  thinks  that  some  of  the  mucous  glands  secrete  bile, 
and  others  act  as  a  pancreas. 

The  intestine,  when  short,  as  in  larvae  and  most  carnivora, 
is  straight,  and  but  little,  if  any,  longer  than  the  abdomen, 
while  in  most  plant-eaters  it  is  long,  and  thus  zigzag  in  its 
course.  It  is  a  very  interesting  fact  that  the  alimentary  canal 
in   the  larva   may   be  partly  shed    at  the  time  of  molting. 


OR,    MANUAt   OF  The   apiary. 


91 


strange  as  xt  may  seem,  the  fecal  pellets  of  some  insects  are 
beautxful  m  form,  and  of  others  pleasant  to  the  taste.  These 
fecal  masses  under  trees  or  bushes  often  reveal  the  presence  of 
caterpillars.  I  find  my  children  use  them  to  excellent  purpose 
in  finding  rare  specimens.  In  some  caterpillars  they  are 
barrel-shaped,  artistically  fluted,  of  brilliant  hue,  and,  if  fos- 
silized would  be  greatly  admired,  as  have  been  the  coprolites- 
fossil  feces  of  higher  animals-if  set  as  gems  in  jewelry.  As 
It  IS,  they  would  form   no  mean   parlor  ornament.     In  other 

T.T%V^u  .^^'''^^''  ^^  ^'^^'■'''^^'  the  excrement,  as  well 
as  the  fluid  that  escapes  from  the  general  surface  of  the  body, 
the  anus,  or  in  some  species  from  special  tubes  called  the 
nectaries,  is  very  sweet,  and  in  absence  of  floral  nectar  will 
often  be  appropriated  by  bees  and  conveyed  to  the  hives.  In 
those  insects  that  suck  their  food,  as  bees,  butterflies,  moths 
two-winged  flies  and  bugs,  the  feces  are  liquid,  while  in  case 
of  solid  food  the  excrement  is  nearly  solid.  It  is  doubtless  this 
liquid  excreta  falling  from  bees  that  has  been  referred  to  often 
as  a  fine  mist. 

SKCRBTORY  ORGANS  OF  INSBCTS. 

I  have  already  spoken  of  the  salivary  glands,  which  Kirby 
describes  as  distinct  from  the  true  silk-secreting  tubes,  though 
Newport  thinks  them  one  and  the  same.  In  many  insects 
these  seem  absent.  I  have  also  spoken  of  the  mucus  glands, 
the  urinary  tubules,  etc.  Besides  these,  there  are  other  secre- 
tions which  serve  for  purposes  of  defense.  In  the  queen  and 
workers  of  bees,  and  in  ants  and  wasps,  the  poison  intruded 
with  the  sting  is  an  example.  This  is  secreted  by  glands  at 
the  posterior  of  the  abdomen,  stored  in  sacs  (Fig.  38,  p^),  and 
extruded  through  the  sting  as  occasion  requires.  I  know  of  no 
insects  that  poison  while  they  bite,  except  mosquitoes,  gnats, 
and  some  bugs.  Mosquitoes  and  some  flies,  in  biting,  convey, 
as  do  ticks,  germs  of  malaria  or  noxious  protozoans,  and  so 
induce  disease. 

A  few  exceedingly  beautiful  caterpillars  are  covered  with 
branching  spines,  which  sting  about  like  a  nettle.  We  have 
three  such  species.  They  are  green,  and  of  rare  attraction,  so 
that  to  capture  them  is  worth  the  slight  inconvenience  arising 


92  THE  BEE-KEBPBR'S  GUIDE, 

from  their  irritating-  punctures.  Some  insects,  like  many 
bugs,  flies,  beetles,  and  even  butterflies,  secrete  a  disgusting^ 
fluid,  or  gas,  which  affords  protection,  as  by  its  stench  it 
renders  these  filthy  bugs  so  offensive  that  even  a  hungry  bird 
or  half-famished  insect  passes  them  by  on  the  other  side. 
Some  Insects  secrete  a  gas  which  is  stored  in  a  sac  at  the  pos- 
terior end  of  the  body,  and  shot  forth  with  an  explosion  in  case 
danger  threatens ;  thus  by  noise  and  smoke  it  startles  its 
enemy,  which  beats  a  retreat.  I  have  heard  the  little  bom- 
bardier beetle  at  such  times,  even  at  considerable  distances. 
The  frightful  reports  about  the  terrible  horn  of  the  tomato- 
worm  larva  are  mere  nonsense  ;  a  more  harmless  animal  does 
not  exist.  My  little  boy  of  four  years,  and  girl  of  only  two, 
used  to  bring-  them  to  me  in  the  summer,  and  regard  them  as 
admiringly  as  would  their  father  upon  receiving  them  from 
the  delighted  children. 

If  we  except  bees  and  wasps,  there  are  no  true  insects  that 
need  be  feared  ;  nor  need  we  except  them,  for  with  fair  usage 
even  they  are  seldom  provoked  to  use  their  cruel  weapon.  The 
so-called  "  kissing-  bugs,"  which  usually  bite  on  the  legs,  and 
not  on  the  lips,  are  too  rare  to  be  feared.  There  are  two  or 
three  species  of  these  biting  bugs. 

SEX-OHGANS  OF  INSECTS. 

The  male  organs  consist  of  the  testes  (Fig-.  37,  a),  which  are 
double.  These  are  made  up  of  tubules  or  vesicles,  of  which 
there  may  be  from  one,  as  in  the  drone-bee,  to  several,  as  in 
some  beetles,  on  each  side  the  abdominal  cavity.  In  these 
vesicles  g-row  the  sperm  cells,  or  spermatozoa  (Fig.  50),  which, 
when  liberated,  pass  through  a  long-  convoluted  tube,  the  vas 
deferens  (Fig.  37,  b,  b),  into  the  seminal  sac  (Fig.  37,  c,  c), 
where,  in  connection  with  mucus,  they  are  stored.  In  most 
insects  there  are  glandular  sacs  (Fig.  37,  d)  joined  to  these 
seminal  receptacles,  which,  in  the  male  bee,  are  very  large. 
The  sperm  cells  mingled  with  these  viscid  secretions,  as  they 
appear  in  the  seminal  receptacle  ready  for  use,  form  the 
seminal  fluid.  Extending-  from  these  seminal  receptacles  is 
the  ejaculatory  duct  (Fig.  37,  <?,/,  ^),  which,  in  copulation, 
carries  the  male  fluid  to  the  penis  (Fig.  37,  h),  through  which  it 


OR,  MANUAIy  OF  THE   APIARY.  93 

passes  to  the  oviduct  of  the  female.  Beside  this  latter  organ 
are  the  sheath,  the  claspers,  when  present,  and,  in  the  male 
bee,  those  large  yellow  glandular  sacs  (Fig.  37,  i),  which  are 
often  seen  to  dart  forth  as  the  drone  is  held  in  the  warm  hand. 

Fig.  37. 


Male  Organs  of  Drone,  much  magnified. 

a  Testes.  g  Common  duct. 

6  b  Vasa  deferentia.  fg  Ejaculatory  duct. 

cc  Seminal  sacs.  h  Penis. 

d  Glandular  sacs.  i  Yellow  saccules. 

The  female  organs  (Fig.  38)  consist  of  the  ovaries  (Fig. 
38,  o,  o),  which  are  situated  one  on  either  side  of  the  abdominal 
cavity.  From  these  extended  the  two  oviducts  (Fig.  38,  B), 
which  unite  into  the  common  oviduct  (Fig.  38,  £)),  through 
which  the  eggs  pass  in  deposition.  In  the  higher  Hymenop- 
tera  there  is  beside  this  oviduct,  and  connected  with  it,  a  sac 


94 


THB  BEE-KBEPBR'S  GUIDE  j 


(Fig.  38,  s,  b)  called  the  spermatheca,  which  receives  the  male 
fluid  in  copulation,  and  which,  by  extruding-  its  contents,  must 
ever  after  do  the  work  of  impregnation. 

This  sac   was  discovered,  and  its   use   suggested,  by  Mal- 

FiG.  38. 


Female  Organs,  magmfied,  from  Zeuckart. 


Pg  Poison  glands. 
Sg  Sting  glands. 
S  Sting. 


O  Ovaries. 
DD  Oviducts. 
S  b  Spermatheca. 
Ph  Poison  sac. 


pighi  as  early  as  1686,  but  its  function  was  not  fully  demon- 
strated until  1792,  when  the  great  anatomist,  John  Hunter, 
showed  that  in  copulation  this  was  filled.  The  ovaries  are 
multitubular   organs.      In  some    insects^  as  laying,  workers, 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  TH«  APIARY.  95 

there  are  but  very  few  tubes-two  or  three  ;  while  in  the  queen- 
bee  there  are  more  than  one  hundred.  In  these  tmbes  the  ova 
or  egffs  grow,  as  do  the  sperm-cells  in  the  vesicles  of  the  testes. 
The  number  of  eggs  is  variable.  Some  insects,  as  the  mud- 
wasps,  produce  very  few,  while  the  queen  white-ant  extrudes 
millions.  The  end  of  the  oviduct,  called  the  ovipositor,  is 
wonderful  in  its  variation.  Sometimes  it  consists  of  concen- 
tric rings,  like  a  spyglass,  which  may  be  pushed  out  or  drawn 
in  ;  sometimes  of  a  long  tube  armed  with  augers  or  saws  of 
wonderful  finish,  to  prepare  for  eggs  ;  or  again  of  a  tube 
which  may  also  serve  as  a  sting.  The  females  of  all  Hymenop- 
tera  possess  a  very  complex  sting,  saw,  or  ovipositor,  which 
can  be  said  of  no  other  order. 

Most  authors  state  that  insects  copulate  only  once,  or  at 
least  that  the  female  meets  the  male  but  once.  Many  species 
like  the  squash-bug  mate  several  times.  In  some  cases,  as  we 
shall  see  in  the  sequel,  the  male  is  killed  by  the  copulatory 
act.     I  think  this  curious  fatality  is  limited  to  few  species. 

To  study  viscera,  which  of  course  requires  very  careful 
dissection,  we  need  more  apparatus  than  has  been  yet 
described.  Here  a  good  lens  is  indispensable.  A  small  dis- 
secting-knife,  a  delicate  pair  of  forceps,  and  some  small, 
sharp-pointed  dissecting  scissors— those  of  the  renowned 
Swammerdam  were  so  fine  at  the  point  that  it  required  a  lens 
to  sharpen  them— which  may  also  serve  to  clip  the  wings  of 
<iueens,  are  requisite  to  satisfactory  work.  Specimens  put  in 
alcohol  will  be  improved,  as  the  oil  will  be  dissolved  out,  and 
the  muscles  hardened.  Formalin  is  much  cheaper,  and  on 
many  accounts  better  than  alcohol.  It  does  not  evaporate  as 
readily,  and  the  specimens  preserved  in  it  do  not  smell  offen- 
sive. Placing  specimens  in  hot  water  will  do  nearly  as  well, 
in  which  case  oil  of  turpentine  will  dissolve  off  the  fat.  This 
may  be  applied  with  a  camel's-hair  brush.  By  dissecting 
under  water  the  loose  portions  will  float  off,  and  render  effect- 
ive work  more  easy.  Swammerdam,  who  had  that  most 
valuable  requisite  to  a  naturalist— unlimited  patience— not 
only  dissected  out  the  parts,  but  with  small  glass  tubes,  fine 
as  a  hair,  he  injected  the  various  vessels,  as  the  alimentary 
canal  and  air-tubes.     My  reader,  why  may  not  you  look  in 


96  TH3  bee-keeper's  guide  ; 

upon  these  wondrous  beauties  and  marvels  of  God's  own 
handiwork — Nature's  grand  exposition  ?  Father,  why  would 
not  a  set  of  dissecting  instruments  be  a  most  suitable  gift  to 
your  son  ?  You  might  thus  sow  the  seed  which  would  germi- 
nate into  a  Swammerdam,  and  that  on  your  own  hearth-stone. 
Messrs.  Editors,  why  do  not  you  keep  boxes  of  these  instru- 
ments for  sale,  and  thus  aid  to  light  the  torch  of  genius,  and 
hasten  apiarian  research  ? 

TRANSFORMATION  OF  INSECTS. 

What  in  all  the  realm  of  nature  is  so  worthy  to  awaken 
delight  and  admiration  as  the  astonishing  changes  which 
insects  undergo  ?  Just  think  of  the  sluggish,  repulsive  cater- 
pillar, dragging  its  heavy  form  over  clod  or  bush,  or  mining 
in  dirt  and  filth,  changed,  by  the  wand  of  Nature's  great 
magician,  first  into  the  motionless  chrysalis,  decked  with 
green  and  gold,  and  beautiful  as  the  gem  that  glitters  on  the 
finger  of  beauty,  then  bursting  forth  as  the  graceful,  gorgeous 
butterfly  ;  which,  by  its  brilliant  tints  and  elegant  poise,  out- 
rivals even  the  birds  among  the  life-jewels  of  Nature,  and  is 
made  fit  to  revel  in  all  her  decorative  wealth.  The  little  fly, 
too,  with  wings  dyed  in  rainbow  hues,  flitting  like  a  fairy 
from  leaf  to  flower,  was  but  yesterday  the  repulsive  maggot, 
reveling  in  the  veriest  filth  of  decaying  Nature.  The  grub 
to-day  drags  its  slimy  shape  through  the  slums  of  earth,  on 
which  it  fattens  ;  to-morrow  it  will  glitter  as  the  brillant  set- 
ting in  the  bracelet  and  ear-drops  of  the  gay  and  thoughtless 
belle. 

There  are  four  separate  stages  in  the  development  of 
insects  :    The  egg,  the  larva,  the  pupa,  and  the  imago. 


This  is  not  unlike  the  same  in  higher  animals.  It  has  its 
yolk,  the  real  egg,  and  its  surrounding  white  or  albumen,  like 
the  eggs  of  all  mammals,  and  farther,  the  delicate  shell,  which 
is  familiar  in  the  eggs  of  birds  and  reptiles.  Eggs  of  insects 
are  often  beautiful  in  form  and  color,  and  not  infrequently 
ribbed  and  fluted  (Fig.  41),  as  by  a  master  hand.  The  form  of 
eggs    is    very  various — spherical,   oval,    cylindrical,  oblong, 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF  THB  APIARY.  97 

Straight,  and  curved  (Fig.  39,  a,  b).  Through  the  egg  is  an 
opening  (Fig.  41,  A,  B,  m),  the  micropyle,  through  which 
passes  the  sperm-cells.  All  insects  seem  to  be  guarded  by  a 
wonderful  knowledge,  or  instinct,  or  intelligence,  in  the  pla- 
cing of  eggs  on  or  near  the  peculiar  food  of  the  larva  even 
though  in  many  cases  such  food  is  no  part  of  the  aliment  of 
the  imago.  The  fly  has  the  refined  habits  of  the  epicure,  from 
whose  cup  it  daintily  sips,  yet  its  eggs  are  placed  in  the  horse- 
droppmgs  of  stable  and  pasture. 

Inside  the  egg  wonderful  changes    soon  commence,  and 
their   consummation    is    a    tiny    larva.      Somewhat    similar 
changes  can  be  easily  and  most  profitably  studied  by  breaking 
and  examining  a  hen's  egg  each  successive  day  of  incubation. 
As  with  the  eggs  of  our  own   species,  and  of  all  higher  ani- 
mals, the  egg  of  insects,  or  the  yolk,  the  essential  part— the 
white  is  only  food,  so  to  speak-soon  segments  or  divides  into 
a  great  many  cells-in  the  morula  stage-which  soon  unite  into 
three  membranes,  the  blastoderms— blastula  stage— which  are 
the  initial  animal ;  these  blastoderms  soon  form  a  single  arch 
or  sac,  and  not  a  double  arch,  one  above   the  other,  as  in  our 
own  vertebrate  branch.     This  sac,  looking  like  a   miniature 
bag  of  grain,  grows  by  absorption,  becomes  articulated,  and 
by  budding  out  is  soon  provided  with   the  various  members. 
At  first  the  sixteen  or  seventeen  segments  are  much  alike,  and 
all  bear  appendages.     From  the  three  segments  of  the  head 
come  the  antenns  and  mouth   organs,  from  the  three  thoracic 
rings  the  three  pairs  of  legs,  while  the  remaining  abdominal 
joints  generally  soon  lose  all   show  of  appendages,  which  are 
never  present  in  the  imago.    The  trachea,  and  fore  and  hind 
intestines,  all  but   the   stomach,  are  but   invaginations  of  the 
ectoderm  or  skin  membrane,  and  so  are  shed  when  the  skin  is 
moulted.    As  in  higher  animals,  these  changes  are  consequent 
upon   heat,  and  usually,  not  always,  upon   the  incorporation 
within  the  eggs  of  the  sperm-cells  from  the  male,  which  enter 
the  egg  at  an  opening  called  the  micropyle.     The  time  it  takes 
the  embryo  inside  the  egg  to  develop  is  gauged  by  heat,  and 
will,  therefore,  vary  with  the  season  and  temperature,  though 
in  different  species  it  varies  from  days  to  months.     The  num- 
ber of  eggs  which  an  insect  may  produce  is  subject  to  wide 


98  THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 

variation.      There  may  be  a   score  of  them;  there  may  be 
thousands. 

THE  lyARVA  OF  INSECTS. 

From  the  egg  comes  the  larva,  also  called  grub,  maggot, 
caterpillar,  and  very  erroneously  worm.  These  are  worm- 
shaped  (Fig.  39),  usually  have  strong  jaws,  simple  eyes,  and 
the  body  plainly  marked  into  ring  divisions.  In  some  insects 
there  are  fourteen  of  these  rings  or  segments,  or  ten  besides  the 
head  and  three  rings  of  the  thorax.  In  bees,  and  nearly  all 
other  insects  (Fig.  39,/),  there  is  one  less  abdominal  ring. 
Often,  as  in  case  of  some  grubs,  larval  bees,  and  maggots, 
there  are  no  legs.  In  most  grubs  there  are  six  legs,  two  to 
each  of  the  three  rings  succeeding  the  head.  Besides  these, 
caterpillars  have  usually  ten  prop-legs  farther  back  on  the 
body,  though  a  few— the  loopers  or  measuring  caterpillars — 
have  only  four  or  six,  while  the  larvae  of  the  saw-flies  have 
from  twelve  to  sixteen  of  the  false  or  prop-legs.  The  alimen- 
tary canal  of  larval  insects  is  usually  short,  direct,  and  quite 
simple,  while  the  sex-organs  are  slightly  if  at  all  developed. 
The  larvae  of  insects  are  voracious  eaters — indeed,  their  only 
work  seems  to  be  to  eat  and  grow  fat.  This  rapid  growth  is 
well  shown  in  the  larva  of  the  bee,  which  increases  during  its 
brief  period  from  egg  to  full-grown  larva — less  than  five  days — 
from  1200  to  1500  times  its  weight.  As  the  entire  growth 
occurs  at  this  stage,  their  gormandizing  habits  are  the  more 
excusable.  I  have  often  been  astonished  at  the  amount  of  food 
that  the  insects  in  my  breeding  cases  would  consume.  The 
skin  or  crust  of  insects  is  unyielding,  hence  growth  requires 
that  it  shall  be  cast.  This  shedding  of  the  skin  is  called 
moulting.  It  is  a  strange  fact,  already  mentioned,  that  the 
treacheae  and  a  part  of  the  alimentary  canal  are  cast  oflf  with 
the  skin.  Most  insects  moult  from  four  to  six  times.  That 
bees  moult  was  even  known  to  Swammerdam.  Vogel  speaks 
of  the  thickening  of  the  cells  because  of  these  cast-skins.  Dr. 
Packard  observed  many  years  since,  that  in  the  thin-skinned 
larvas,  such  as  those  of  bees,  wasps,  and  gall-flies,  the  moults 
are  not  apparent ;  as  these  larvae  increase  in  size,  they  out- 
grow the  old  skin  which  comes  off  in   shreds.     The  length  of 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  XHB  APIARY.  99 

time  which  insects  remain  as  larvae  is  very  variable.  The 
maggot  revels  in  decaying  meat  but  two  or  three  days ;  the 
larval  bee  eats  its  rich  pabulum  for  nearly  a  week  ;  the  apple- 
tree  borer  gnaws  away  for  three  years  ;  while  the  seventeen- 
year  cicada  remains  a  larva  for  more  than  sixteen  years, 
groping  in  darkness  and  feeding  on  roots,  only  to  come  forth 
for  a  few  days  of  hilarity,  sunshine,  and  courtship.  Surely, 
here  is  patience  exceeding  even  that  of  Swammerdam.  The 
name  larva,  meaning  masked,  was  given  to  this  stage  by  Lin- 
naeus, as  the  mature  form  of  the  insect  is  hidden,  and  can  not 
be  even  divined  by  the  unlearned. 

THE  PUPA  OF  INSECTS. 

In  this  stage  the  insect  is  in  profound  repose,  as  if  resting 
after  its  meal,  the  better  to  enjoy  its  active,  sportive  days— 
the  joyous  honeymoon— soon  to  come.  At  this  time  the  insect 
may  look  like  a  seed,  as  in  the  coarctate  pupa  of  diptera,  so 
familiar  in-the  "  flaxseed  "  state  of  the  Hessian-fly,  or  in  the 
pupa  of  the  cheese-maggot,  or  the  meat-fly.  The  form  of  the 
adult  insect  is  very  obscurely  shown  in  butterfly  pupse,  called, 
because  of  their  golden  spots,  chrysalids,  and  in  the  pupae  of 
moths.  Other  pups,  as  in  the  case  of  bees  (Fig.  39,  ^)  and 
beetles,  look  not  unlike  the  mature  insect  with  its  antennae, 
legs,  and  wings  closely  bound  to  the  body  by  a  thin  membrane, 
hence  the  name  pupa  which  Linne  gave— referring  to  this  con- 
dition—as the  insect  looks  as  if  wrapped  in  swaddling  clothes, 
the  old  cruel  way  of  torturing  the  infant,  as  if  it  needed  hold- 
ing together.  The  pupa,  and  so  of  course  the  imago,  has  less 
segments  than  has  the  larva.  In  the  bee,  the  first  ring  of  the 
abdomen  becomes  the  petiole,  and  the  last  three  are  merged 
into  one,  and  thus  the  number  of  segments  in  the  adult  are 
only  six.  The  drone  has  one  more.  The  spiracles  and  ganglia 
are  also  reduced  in  number.  Aristotle  called  pupae  "  nymphs  " 
—a  name  still  in  use.  The  word  nymph  is  now  used  to  desig- 
nate the  immature  stages,  both  larval  and  pupal,  of  insects 
with  incomplete  transformations  like  locusts.  Inside  the  pupa 
skin  great  changes  ar^  in  progress,  for  either  by  modifying 
the  larval  organs  or  developing  parts  entirely  new  by  use  of 
the  accumulated  material  stored  by  the  larva  during  its  pro- 


100 


THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 


longed  banquet,  the  wonderful  transformation  from  the  slug'- 
gish,  worm-like  larva,  to  the  active,  bird-like  imago  is  accom- 
plished. Sometimes  the  pupa  is  surrounded  by  a  silken 
cocoon,  either  thick,  as  the  cocoon  of  some  moths,  or  thin  and 
incomplete  as  the  cocoon  of  bees.  The  cocoon  is  spun  by  mov- 
ing the  head  back  and  forth.  The  liquid  thread  quickly  dries, 
and  is  drawn  forth  as  the  head  moves.     These  cocoons  are 

Fig.  39. 


Development  of  the  Bee,  after  Duncan. 

a  b  Eggs.  g  Pupa. 

c  def  Larvae.  k  Caps. 

i  Qucen-ccU. 


spun  by  the  larvae  as  their  last  toil  before  assuming  the  restful 
pupa  state.  The  length  of  time  in  the  pupa  stage  varies  from 
a  few  days  to  as  many  months.  Sometimes  insects  which  are 
two-brooded  remain  as  pupa.'  but  a  few  days  in  summer,  while 
in  winter  they  are  moths  passing  the  quiescent  period.  Our 
cabbage-butterlly  illustrates  this  peculiarity.  Others,  like  the 
Hessian-fly  and  coddling-moth,  remain  through  the  long,  cold 
months  as  larva:.     How  wonderful  is  this  !     The  first  brood  of 


OR,   MANUAL  Olf  THE  APIARY.  IQl 

larvae  change  to  pupae  at  once,  the  last  brood,  though  the 
weather  be  just  as  hot,  wait  over  inside  the  cocoon  till  the 
warm  days  of  coming  spring. 

THE  IMAGO  STAGE. 
This  term  refers  to  the  last  or  winged   form  (Fig.  40),  and 
was  given  by  Linnaeus  because  the  image  of  the  insect  is  now 

Fig.  41. 


Fig.  40. 


Queen-Bee,  magnifled.— Original. 


Bee-Egg.— OHginal. 

B  Large  end. 


m  Micropyle. 

real  and  not  masked  as  when  in  the  larva  state.  Now  the 
insect  has  its  full-formed  legs  and  wings,  its  compound  eyes, 
often  complex  mouth-parts— a  few  insects,  like  the  bot-flies,' 
have  no  mouth  organs— and  the  fully  developed  sex-organs! 
In  fact,  the  whole  purpose  of  the  insect  now  seems  to  be  to 
reproduce  itself.  Many  insects  do  not  even  eat,  only  flit  in 
merry  marriage  mood  for  a  brief  space,  when  the  male  flees 
this  life  to  be  quickly  followed  by  the  female,  she  only  wait- 
ing to  place  her  eggs  where  the  prospective  infants  may  find 
suitable  food.  Some  insects  not  only  place  their  eggs,  but 
feed  and  care  for  their  young,  as  do  ants,  wasps  and  bees. 
Again,  as  in  case  of  some  species  of  ants  and  bees,  abortive 


102  THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 

females  perform  all,  or  most,  of  the  labor  in  caring  for  the 
young-.  The  life  of  the  imago  also  varies  much  as  to  duration. 
Some  images  live  but  for  a  day,  others  make  merry  for  several 
days,  while  a  few  species  live  for  months.  Very  few  imagos 
survive  the  whole  year.  The  queen-bee  may  live  for  five  years, 
and  Ivubbock  has  queen-ants  which  are  fifteen  or  more  years 
old. 

INCOMPI.ETE  TRANSFORMATION. 

Some  insects  like  the  bugs,  lice,  grasshoppers,  and  locusts, 
are  quite  alike  at  all  stages  of  growth,  after  leaving  the  egg. 
The  only  apparent  difi^erence  is  the  smaller  size  and  the  absence 
or  incomplete  development  of  the  wings  in  the  larvae  and  pupae. 
The  larva  and  pupa  are  known  as  nymphs.  The  habits  and 
structure  from  first  to  last  seem  to  be  much  the  same.  Here, 
as  before,  the  full  development  of  the  sex-crgans  occurs  only 
in  the  imago. 

ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOI^OGY  OF  THE 
HONEY-BEE. 

With  a  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  and  some  glimpses  of 
the  physiology  of  insects  in  general,  we  shall  now  find  it  easy 
to  learn  the  special  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  highest 
insects  of  the  order. 

THREE   KINDS   OF   BEES   IN   EACH   FAMILY. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  a  very  remarkable  feature  in  the 
economy  of  the  honey-bee,  described  even  by  Aristotle,  which 
is  true  of  some  other  bees,  and  of  ants,  is  the  presence  in  each 
family  of  three  distinct  kinds,  which  differ  in  form,  color, 
structure,  size,  habits  and  function.  Thus,  we  have  the  queen 
(Lubbock  has  shown  that  there  are  several  queens  in  an  ant 
colony),  a  number  of  drones,  and  a  far  greater  number  of 
workers.  Huber,  Bevan,  Munn,  and  Kirby,  also  speak  of  a 
fourth  kind,  blacker  than  the  usual  workers.  These  are 
accidental,  and  are,  as  conclusively  shown  by  Baron  von  Ber- 
lepsch,  ordinary  workers,  more  deeply  colored  by  age,  loss  of 
hair,  dampness,  or  some  other  atmospheric  condition.  Ameri- 
can apiarists  are  too  familiar  with  these  black  bees,  for  after 
our  severe  winters  they  prevail  in  the  colony,  and,  as  remarked 


OR,  MANUAL   OF   THE   APIARY.  103 

by  the  noted  Baron,  "They  quickly  disappear."  Munn  also 
tells  of  a  fifth  kind,  with  a  top-knot,  which  appears  at  swarm- 
ing seasons.  I  am  at  a  great  loss  to  know  what  he  refers  to, 
unless  it  be  the  pollen-masses  of  the  asclepias,  or  milk-weed, 
which  sometimes  fasten  to  our  bees  and  become  a  severe 
burden. 

THE  QUEEN-BEE. 

The  queen  (Fig.  40),  although  referred  to  as  the  mother- 
bee,  was  called  the  king  by  Virgil,  Pliny,  and  by  writers  as 
late  as  the  last  century,  though  in  the  "Ancient  Bee-Master's 
Farewell,"  by  John  Keyes,  published  in  London  in  1796,  I  find 
an  admirable  description  of  the  queen-bee,  with  her  function 
correctly  stated.  Reaumur,  as  quoted  in  "  Wildman  on  Bees," 
published  in  I^ondon  in  1770,  says,  "  This  third  sort  has  a  grave 
and  sedate  walk,  is  armed  with  a  sting,  and  is  mother  of  all 
others." 

Huber,  to  whom  every  apiarist  owes  so  much,  and  who, 
though  blind,  through  the  aid  of  his  devoted  wife  and  intelli- 
gent servant,  Francis  Burnens,  developed  so  many  interesting 
truths,  demonstrated  the  fact  of  the  queen's  maternity.  This 
author's  work,  second  edition,  published  in  Edinburgh  in  1808, 
gives  a  full  history  of  his  wonderful  observations  and  experi- 
ments, and  must  ever  rank  with  the  work  of  Langstroth  as  a 
classic,  worthy  of  study  by  all. 

The  queen,  then,  is  the  mother-bee ;  in  other  words,  a 
fully  developed  female.  Her  ovaries  (Fig.  38,  o,  o )  are  very 
large,  nearly  filling  her  long  abdomen.  The  tubes,  already 
described  as  composing  them,  are  very  numerous,  there  being 
more  than  one  hundred,  while  the  spermatheca  (Fig.  38,  s  b)  is 
plainly  visible.  This  is  a  membranous  sac,  hardly  1-20  of  an 
inch  in  diameter.  It  is  fairly  covered  with  interlacing  nerves, 
which  give  to  it  its  light,  glistening  appearance.  The  sper- 
matheca has  a  short  duct,  joined  to  which  is  the  duct  of  the 
double  appendicular  glands  which  closely  embrace  the  sper- 
matheca. These  are  described  by  Siebold  and  Leuckart,  who 
suppose  that  they  furnish  mucus  to  render  the  sperm-cells 
more  mobile,  so  that  they  will  move  more  freely.  Leuckart 
also  describes  muscles,  which  connect  with  the  duct  of  the 


104 


THE   BEK-KKKPKR'S  GUIDE; 


spermatheca  (Fig-.  38),  which  he  thinks  act  as  sphincters  or 
dilators  of  this  duct,  to  restrain  or  permit  the  passag-e  of  the 
spermatozoa.  When  the  duct  is  opened  the  ever-active  sperm- 
cells  rush  out,  aided  in  their  course  by  the  secretion  from  the 
appended  g-lands. 

The   spermatheca,    according   to   Leuckart,   may  contain 
25,000,000  spermatozoa.     We  see,  then,  why  it  does  not  run 

Fig.  43. 


Fig.  42. 


Labium  of  Qikch.— Original. 

a  Ligrula. 
d  d  Parayrlossse. 
b  Labial  palpi. 


t  Tibia. 
t  s  Tarsal  joint.«. 


Part  of  Ltg  of  (^luen,  magnified,  after  Duncan, 
p  Broadened  tibia  and  basal  tarsus. 


empty,  even  though  Siebold  thought  that  each  of  the  one  and 
one-half  million  of  eggs  that  a  queen  may  lay,  receives  two  or 
three  sperm-cells.  I  think  it  is  now  proved  that  but  one  sperm- 
cell  enters  each  &^^.  The  eggs,  which,  as  Girard  states,  do 
not  form  as  early  in  the  ovaries  as  do  the  sperm-cells  in  the 
organs  of  the  drone,  which  are  matured  while   the  drone  is  yet 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF  THB   APIARV.  105 

a  pupa,  are  a  little  more  than  1-16  of  an  inch  lon^,  slightly 
curved,  and  rather  smaller  at  the  end  of  attachment  to  the 
comb  The  outer  membrane  (Fig.  41)  appears  cellular  when 
magnified,  and  shows  the  micropyle  at  the  larger  end  (Fig.  41, 
^,  m).  The  possession  of  the  ovaries  and  attendant  organs  is 
the  chief  structural  peculiarity  which  marks  the  queen,  as 
these  are  the  characteristic  marks  of  females  among  all  ani- 
mals. But  she  has  other  peculiarities  worthy  of  mention  :  She 
JS  longer  than  either    drones  or  workers,  being  more   than 

Fig.  44. 


Diagram  of  Abdomen  of  y«e«t,  from  Cotoait. 


F  Ovaries. 

-M  Honey  stomach. 

D  Stomach. 


-R  Rectum. 
X  fE.sophag^us. 
.V  s  Sheath. 


S  t  Sting. 
A  Anus, 
r  Oviduct. 


seven-eighths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  with  her  long,  tapering 
abdomen,  is  not  without  real  grace  and  beauty.  The  queen's 
mouth  organs  are  developed  to  a  less  degree  than  are  those  of 
the  worker-bees.  Her  jaws  (Fig.  65,  b)  or  mandibles  are  weaker, 
with  a  rudimentary  tooth,  and  her  tongue  or  ligula  (Fig.  42,  a 
and  49),  as  also  the  labial  palpi  (Fig.  42,  t>,  and  49)  andmaxiHae.' 
are  considerably  shorter.  Of  the  four  pairs  of  glands  (Fig.  59) 
so  elegantly  figured,  and  so  well  described  by  Schiemenz,  the 
queen  has  the  first  pair  very  rudimentary,  and  the  others  well 
developed.  The  fourth  pair,  or  Wolff's  glands,  are  much  larger 
than  in  the  worker-bees.  Her  eyes,  though  like,  yet  hardly 
as  large  as  the  same  in   the  worker-bee  (Fig.  4),  are  smaller 


106  THE   BKE-KEEPER'S  GUIDE; 

than  those  of  the  drones,  and  do  not  meet  above.  So  the  three 
ocelli  are  situated  above  and  between  the  compound  eyes.  The 
queen's  wings  (Fig.  40)  are  relatively  shorter  than  those  of 
either  the  workers  or  drones,  for  instead  of  attaining  to  the 
end  of  the  body,  they  reach  but  little  beyond  the  third  joint  of 
the  abdomen.  The  queen,  though  she  has  the  characteristic 
posterior  tibia  and  basal  tarsus  (Fig.  43,  />)  in  respect  to 
breadth,  has  not  the  cavity  and  surrounding  hairs  which  form 
the  pollen-baskets  of  the  workers.  The  legs  of  the  queen  (Fig. 
43)  are  large  and  strong,  but,  like  her  body,  they  have  not  the 
pollen-gathering  hairs  which  are  so  well  marked  in  the  worker. 
The  queen  possesses  a  sting  which  is  longer  than  that  of  the 
worker,  and  resembles  that  of  the  bumble-bee  in  being  curved 
(Fig.  44,  Ss),  and  that  of  the  bumble-bees  and  wasps  in  having 
few  and  short  barbs — the  little  projections  which  point  back 
like  the  barb  of  a  fish-hook,  and  which,  in  case  of  the  workers, 
prevent  the  withdrawing  of  the  instrument,  when  once  fairly 
inserted.  "While  there  are  seven  quite  prominent  barbs  on 
each  shaft  of  the  worker's  sting  (Fig.  74),  there  are  only  three 
on  those  of  the  queen,  and  these  are  very  short.  As  in  case  of 
the  barbs  of  the  worker's  sting,  so  here,  they  are  successively 
shorter  as  we  recede  from  the  point  of  the  weapon.  Even 
Aristotle  discovered  that  a  queen  will  rarely  use  her  sting.  I 
have  often  tried  to  get  a  queen  to  sting  me,  but  without  suc- 
cess. Neighbour  gives  three  cases  where  queens  used  their 
stings,  in  one  of  which  she  was  disabled  from  farther  egg- 
laying.  She  stings  with  slight  effect.  The  use  of  the  queen's 
sting  is  to  dispatch  a  rival  queen.  The  brain  of  the  queen  is 
relatively  small.  We  should  expect  this,  as  the  queen's  func- 
tions are  vegetative.  So  the  worker,  possessed  of  more  intri- 
cate functions,  is  much  more  highly  organized.  Figure  44 
gives  the  relation  of  the  viscera  of  the  queen. 

Schiemenz  and  Schonfeld  are  unquestionably  correct  in 
the  belief  that  the  queen,  and  the  drones  as  well,  are  fed  by 
the  workers,  the  same  food  that  the  larvae  are  fed.  Thus,  the 
digestion  is  performed  for  both  queen  and  drones. 

I  have  known  queens  to  lay  over  3,000  eggs  a  day.  These 
I  find  weigh  .3900  grams,  while  the  queen  only  weighs  .2299 
grams.    Thus,  the  queen  may  lay  daily  nearly  double  her  own 


OR,  MANUAL  OF  THE  APlARY.  107 

weight  Of  eggs.    This,  of  course,  could  only  be  possible  as  she 
was  fed  highly  nutritious  food,  which  was  wholly  digested  for 
her.     The  larval  bee  fed  the  same  food  doubles  in  weight  in  a 
single  day— a  further  proof  of  the  excellence  of  this  diet 
Schonfeld  finds  that  the  queen,  like  the  drones,  will  soon  die 
if  she  be  shut  away  from   the  workers  by  a  double  wire-cage, 
even  though  in  the  hive  and  surrounded  with  honey.     The  fact 
that  pollen-husks-cuticula-are  never  found  in   the  queen's 
stomach,  gives  added  proof  of  the  above  fact.     The  contents 
are  grayish.     I   never  saw  a    queen   void  her  feces.     Vogel 
reports  having  seen  it,  and   Mr.  Cowan  reports  to  me  that  he 
has  seen  a  queen  pass  a  yellowish  gray  liquid.     We  also  find 
the  queen's  alimentary  canal  comparatively  small,  though  the 
renal  tubules  are  large   and   numerous.  .  The  queen,  like  the 
worker-bees,  is  developed  from  an  impregnated  egg,  which,  of 
course,  could  only   come   from   a  queen    that   had  previously 
mated.     These  eggs  are  not  placed  in  a   horizontal  cell,  but  in 
one  specially  prepared   for  their  reception    (Fig.  39,  i).     The 
queen-cells  (Fig.  45)  are  usually  built  on  the  edge  of  the  comb, 
or  around  an  opening  in  it,  which   is  necessitated  from   their 
size  and  form,  as  usually  the  combs  are  too  close  together  to 
permit  their  location   elsewhere.     These  cells  extend  either 
vertically  or  diagonally  downward,  are  very  rough  (Fig.  45,  c), 
and  are  composed  of  wax  cut  from   the  old  combs,  mixed  with 
pollen  (Mr.  Cheshire  says  all  kinds  of  refuse   is  used  in   con- 
structing queen-cells),  and  in  size  and  form  much  resemble  a 
peanut.     The  eggs  must  be  placed  in   these  cells,  either  by  the 
queen  or  workers.     Huber,  who,  though   blind,  had   wondrous 
eyes,  witnessed  this  act  of  the  queen.    I  have  frequently  seen 
eggs  in  these  cells,  and  without  exception  in  the  exact  position 
in  which  the  queen  always  places  her  eggs  in  the  other  cells. 
John  Keyes,  in  the  old  work  already  referred  to,  whose  descrip- 
tions, though  penned  so  long  ago,  are  wonderfully   accurate, 
and  indicate  great  care,  candor,  and  conscientious  truthfulness,' 
asserts  that  the  queen  is  five  times  as  long  laying  a  royal  egg 
as  she  is  the  others.    From  the  character  of  his  work,  and  its 
early  publication,  I  can  but  think   that  he  had  witnessed  this 
rare  sight.     Some  candid  apiarists  of  our  own   time  and  coun- 
try—E.  Gallup  among  the  rest— claim   to  have  witnessed  the 


108  tHE  bee-keeper's  guide  ; 

same.  The  eggs  are  so  well  glued,  and  are  so  delicate,  that, 
with  Neighbour,  I  should  doubt  the  possibility  of  a  removal 
except  that  some  persons  assert  that  they  have  positive  proof 
that  it  is  sometimes  done.  Possibly  the  young  larvae  may  at 
times  be  removed  from  one  cell  to  another.  The  opponents  to 
the  view  that  the  queen  lays  eggs  in  the  queen-cells,  base  their 
belief  on  a  supposed  discord  between  the  queen  and  neuters. 

The  conditions  which  lead  to  the  building  of  queen-cells, 
and  the  peopling  of  the  same  are  :  Loss  of  queen  ;  when  a 
worker-larva  from  one  to  four  days  old  will  be  surrounded  by 
a  cell ;  inability  of  a  queen  to  lay  impregnated  eggs,  her  sper- 
matheca  having  become  emptied  ;  any  disability  of  the  queen  ; 
great  number  of  worker-bees  in  the  hive  ;  restricted  quarters, 
the  queen  not  having  place  to  deposit  eggs,  or  the  workers 
little  or  no  room  to  store  honey  ;  or  lack  of  ventilation,  so  that 
the  hive  becomes  too  close.  These  last  three  conditions  are 
most  likely  to  occur  at  times  of  great  nectar-secretion. 

A  queen  may  be  developed  from  an  egg,  or,  as  first  shown 
by  Schirach,  from  a  worker-larva  less  than  three  days  old. 
(Mr.  Doolittle  has  known  queens  to  be  reared  from  worker- 
larvae  taken  at  four-and-a-half  days  from  hatching.)  In  such 
cases  the  cells  adjacent  to  the  one  containing  the  selected 
larva  are  removed,  and  the  larva  surrounded  by  a  royal  cell. 
The  development  of  the  queen-larva  is  much  like  that  of  the 
worker,  soon  to  be  detailed,  except  that  it  is  more  rapid,  and 
the  queen-larva  is  fed  richer  and  more  plenteous  food,  called 
royal  jelly.  This  is  an  excellent  name  for  this  substance,  as 
Dr.  A.  de  Planta  has  shown  (B.  B.  J.,  1887,  p.  185)  that  this 
royal  jelly  is  different  from  the  food  both  of  the  worker  and 
drone  larva.  It  is  doubtless  digested  pollen,  as  first  suggested 
by  Dufour,  and  so  ably  proved  by  Schonfeld.  I  have  fed  bees 
honey  with  finely  pulverized  charcoal  in  it,  and  found  the  same 
in  the  royal  jelly.  This  could  not  be  true  if  the  latter  were  a 
secretion,  as  the  carbon  is  not  osmotic.  Dr.  Planta's  re- 
searches show  that  the  royal  jelly  is  richer  in  fatty  elements 
and  proteids  than  the  larval  food  either  of  the  drones  or 
workers ;  but  not  as  rich  in  sugar.  It  contains  more  albumi- 
nous material,  and  much  more  fatty  matter  than  the  food  of 
the  drone-larvae.     Quite  likely  evaporation  may  change  the 


OR,    MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  109 

nature  of  this  royal  jelly.  There  is  never  undigested  food  fed 
to  queen  or  worker  larvze,  but  the  drone-larva  is  thus  fed,  as 
the  microscope  shows  the  pollen.  This  peculiar  food,  as  also 
its  use  and  abundance  in  the  cell,  was  first  described  by 
Schirach,  aSaxon  clergyman,  who  wrote  a  work  on  bees  in 
1771.  It  is  thick,  like  rich  cream  ;  slightly  yellow,  and  so 
abundant  that  the  queen-larva  not  only  floats  in  it  during  all 
its  period  of  growth,  but  quite  a  large  amount  remains  after 
her  queenship  vacates  the  cell.  We  sometimes  find  this  royal 
jelly  in  incomplete  queen-cells,  without  larvae. 

What  a  mysterious  circumstance  is  this  :  These  royal 
scions  simply  receive  a  more  abundant  and  nutritious  diet, 
and  occupy  a  more  ample  habitation — for  I  have  more  than 
once  confirmed  the  statement  of  Mr.  Quinby,  that  the  direction 
of  the  cell  is  immaterial — and  yet  what  a  marvelous  transfor- 
mation. Not  only  are  the  ovaries  developed  and  filled  with 
eggs,  but  the  mouth  organs,  the  wings,  the  legs,  the  sting, 
aye,  even  the  size,  form,  and  habits,  are  all  wondrously 
changed.  The  food  stimulates  extra  development  of  the 
ovaries,  and,  through  the  law  of  compensation,  other  parts  are 
less  developed.  That  the  development  of  parts  should  be 
accelerated,  and  the  size  increased,  is  not  so  surprising — as  in 
breeding  other  insects  I  have  frequently  found  that  kind  and 
amount  of  food  would  hasten  or  retard  growth,  and  might  even 
cause  a  dwarfed  imago — but  that  food  should  so  essentially 
modify  the  structure,  is  certainly  a  rare  and  unique  circum- 
stance, hardly  to  be  found  except  here  and  in  related 
animals.  Bevan  has  suggested  that  laying  workers,  while 
larvae,  have  received  some  of  this  royal  jelly  from  their  posi- 
tion near  a  developing  queen.  As  the  workers  vary  the  food 
for  the  several  larvae,  as  Dr.  Planta  has  shown,  may  they  not 
sometimes  make  a  mistake  and  feed  royal  jelly  to  workers  ? 
Surely,  in  caring  for  so  many  young,  this  would  be  very  par- 
donable. L,angstroth  supposes  that  they  receive  some  royal 
jelly,  purposely  given  by  the  workers,  and  I  have  previously 
thought  this  reasonable  and  probably  true.  But  these  pests 
of  the  apiarist,  and  especially  of  the  breeder,  almost  always, 
so  far  as  I  have  observed,  make  their  appearance  in  colonies 
long  queenless,  and  I  have  noticed  a  case  similar  to  that  given 


110  THE  bkk-keepkr's  guide; 

by  Quinby,  where  these  occurred  in  a  nucleus  where  no  queen 
had  been  developed.  May  it  not  be  true  that  a  desire  for 
eggs  or  unrest  stimulates  in  some  worker,  which  was  perhaps 
over-fed  as  a  larva,  the  growth  of  the  ovaries,  growth  of  eggs 
in  the  ovarian  tubes,  and  consequent  ability  to  deposit  ?  The 
common  high-holder,  Colaptes  auratus — a  bird  belonging  to  the 
wood-pecker  order,  usually  lays  five  eggs,  and  only  five ;  but 
let  cruel  hands  rob  her  of  these  promises  of  future  loved  ones, 
and,  wondrous  to  relate,  she  continues  to  lay  more  than  a 
score.  One  thus  treated,  on  the  College  campus,  actually  laid 
more  than  thirty  eggs.  So  we  see  that  animal  desires  may 
influence  and  move  organs  that  are  generally  independent  of 
the  will.  It  may  be  that  in  queenless  colonies  the  workers 
commence  to  feed  some  worker  or  workers,  the  rich  nitrogen- 
ous food,  and  thus  their  ovaries  are  stimulated  to  activity. 

The  larval  queen  is  longer,  and  more  rapid  of  development 
than  the  other  larvae.  When  developed  from  the  egg — as  in 
case  of  normal  swarming — the  larva  feeds  for  five  days,  when 
the  cell  is  capped  by  the  workers.  At  any  time  during  this 
period  the  larva  can  be  removed,  as  first  shown  by  Mr.  J.  Iv. 
Davis,  of  Michigan,  in  1874,  and  a  newly  hatched  larva  placed 
in  it  instead.  This  is  easily  done  by  use  of  a  quill  tooth- 
pick. The  infant  queen  then  spins  her  cocoon,  which  occupies 
about  one  day.  The  fibrous  part  of  the  cocoon,  which  is  also 
true  of  both  drone  and  worker  larvae,  is  confined  to  the  outer 
end,  as  is  easily  seen  by  microscopic  examination.  Yet  a  thin 
varnish  continues  this  over  the  whole  interior  of  the  cell.  This 
latter  becomes  very  thick  in  worker-cells,  as  many  bees  are 
reared  in  each  cell,  while  in  the  queen-cell  it  is  thin,  as  but 
one  bee  is  reared  in  each  cell.  A  similar  varnish  coats  the 
cocoons  of  all  silk-moths.  This  may  be  the  contents  of  the 
alimentary  canal  simply,  which,  of  course,  is  moulted  with  the 
last  larval  skin,  very  likely  a  special  secretion  is  added.  These 
cocoons  are  shown  nicely  when  we  melt  old  comb  in  the  solar 
wax-extractor.  The  queen  now  spends  nearly  three  days  in 
absolute  repose.  Such  rest  is  common  to  all  cocoon-spinning 
larvae.  The  spinning,  which  is  done  by  a  rapid  motion  to-and- 
f  ro  of  the  head,  always  carrying  the  delicate  thread,  much  like 
the  moving  shuttle  of  the  weaver,  seems  to  bring  exhaustion 


OR,  MANUAL  OF   THE   APIARY.  HJ 

Tr^A^.u"^''"^;  ^^'  "°"  ^^^"™^^  '""^  P"P^  state  (Fig. 
oueen  A  T  T.^  °'  '"'  ^'^^^^"^"^  ^^^  ^^^  comes  for  h  a 
thTnoff  f.  '  ^'^^  ^''°''"  ''^^  ^"^^"   emerges  the  workers 

thin  off  the  wax  from   the  end  of  the  cell  (Fig.  45.  D)      The 

wTtrut "  ''tV'  °'"""'  '^  ''^  '^"^^^  ^^"^'^^^^•'^  --« ^-'^ 

TnHi  .u        '^"^^"^"^*^'''"  ^^y°"*   by  use  Of   her  jaws, 

and  leaves  the  cap  hanging  as  a  lid  to  the  cell  (Fig.  45,  C). 

Fig.  45. 


Qufen-Celh,  from  A.  I.  Hoot  Co. 

A  Queen-cell  from  modified  worker-cell  just  started 
i*  I  incomplete  cell. 

n  Thi'  ''^®'■  '\?^^^  ^^^  emerged,  sho^^■■mg  cap  hanging. 
n  1  hlnned  cell.  E  Cell  cut  into  from  side. 

While  a  queen  usually  comes  forth  in  sixteen  days,  there  may 
be  a  delay.  Cold  will  delay  hatching  of  the  egg,  and  retard 
development.  Sometimes  queens  are  kept  for  a  time  in  the 
cell,  after  they  are  really  ready  to  come  forth.  Thus,  there 
may  be  rarely  a  delay  of  even  two  days.  Huber  states  that 
when  a  queen  emerges  the  bees  are  thrown  into  a  jovous 
excitement,  so  that  he  noticed  a  rise  in  temperature  in  the  hive 
from  92 degrees  F.  to  104  degrees  F.  I  have  never  tested  this 
matter  accurately,  but  I  have  failed   to  notice  any   marked 


112  THE  BEE-KEEPBR'S  guide, 

demonstration  on  the  natal  day  of  her  ladyship  the  queen,  or 
extra  respect  paid  her  as  a  virg-in.  When  queens  are  started 
from  worker-larvae  they  will  issue  as  imagoes  in  ten  or  twelve 
days  from  the  date  of  their  new  prospects.  Mr.  Doolittle 
writes  me  that  he  has  known  them  to  issue  in  eight  and  one- 
half  days.  My  own  observations  sustain  the  assertion  of  Mr. 
P,  L.  Viallon,  that  the  minimum  time  is  nine  and  one-half 
days. 

As  the  queen's  development  is  probably  due  to  superior 
quality  and  increased  quantity  of  food,  it  would  stand  to 
reason  that  queens  started  from  eggs,  or  larvae  just  hatched, 
are  preferable  ;  the  more  so  as,  under  normal  circumstances, 
I  believe  they  are  almost  always  thus  started.  The  best 
experience  sustains  this  position.  As  the  proper  food  and 
temperature  can  best  be  secured  in  a  full  colony— and  here 
again  the  natural  economy  of  the  hive  adds  to  our  argument— 
we  should  infer  that  the  best  queens  would  be  reared  in  strong 
colonies,  or  at  least  kept  in  such  colonies  till  the  cells  were 
capped.  Experience  also  confirms  this  view.  As  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  food  and  the  general  activity  of  the  bees  are 
directly  connected  with  the  full  nourishment  of  the  queen- 
larva,  and  as  these  are  only  at  the  maximum  in  times  of 
active  gathering — the  time  when  queen-rearing  is  naturally 
started  by  the  bees — we  should  also  conclude  that  queens 
reared  at  such  seasons  are  superior.  My  experience— and  I 
have  carefully  observed  in  this  connection — most  emphatically 
sustains  this  view. 

Five  or  six  days  after  issuing  from  the  cell— Neighbour 
says  the  third  day— if  the  day  is  pleasant  the  queen  goes  forth 
on  her  "  marriage  flight ;"  otherwise  she  will  improve  the  first 
pleasant  day  thereafter  for  this  purpose.  Mr.  Doolittle  says 
that  mid-summer  queens  fly  out  in  from  four  to  nine  days, 
while  early  spring  and  fall  queens  may  not  mate  for  from  two 
to  four  weeks.  Rev.  Mr.  Mahin  has  noticed,  as  have  many  of 
us,  that  the  young  queens  fly  out  several  times  simply  to  exer- 
cise, and  then  he  thinks  they  often  go  from  two  to  five  miles  to 
mate;  while  Mr.  Alley  thinks  the  mating  is  performed  within 
one-half  mile  of  the  hive.  I  have  known  queens  to  be  out  on 
their  mating  tour  for  thirty-five  minutes,  in   which  case  it 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF   THS   APIARY.  113 

would  seem  certain  that  they  must  have  g-one  more  than  one- 
half  mile.  It  has  been  reported  by  reliable  persons  that  the 
queens  are  out  from  ten  minutes  to  two  hours.  Sometimes 
queens  will  meet  drones,  as  shown  by  the  white  thread  tipping 
the  body,  and  yet  not  be  impreg-nated.  The  spermatozoa  did 
not  reach  the  spermatheca.  In  such  cases,  a  second,  and  per- 
haps a  third,  mating  is  required.  Huber  was  the  first  to  prove 
that  impregnation  always  takes  place  on  the  wing.  Bonnet 
also  proved  that  the  same  is  true  of  ants,  though  in  this  case 
millions  of  queens  and  drones  often  swarm  out  at  once.  I 
have  myself  witnessed  several  of  these  wholesale  matrimonial 
excursions  among  ants.  I  have  also  taken  bumble-bees  that 
were  copulating  while  on  the  wing.  I  have  also  seen  both 
ants  and  bumble-bees  fall  while  united,  probably  borne  down 
by  the  expiring  males.  That  butterflies,  moths,  dragon-flies, 
etc.,  mate  on  the  wing  is  a  matter  of  common  observation.  It 
has  generally  been  thought  impossible  for  queens  in  confine- 
ment to  be  impregnated.  Prof.  Leuckart  believes  that  suc- 
cessful mating  demands  that  the  large  air-sacs  (Fig.  1,/)  of 
the  drones  shall  be  filled,  which  he  thinks  is  only  possible 
during  flight.  The  demeanor  of  the  drones  suggests  that  the 
excitement  of  flight,  like  the  warmth  of  the  hand,  is  necessary 
to  induce  the  sexual  impulse. 

Many  others,  with  myself,  have  followed  Huber  in  clip- 
ping the  virgin  queen's  wing,  only  to  produce  a  sterile,  or 
drone-laying  queen.  One  queen,  however,  whose  wing  was 
clipped  just  as  she  came  from  the  cell,  and  the  entrance  to 
whose  hive  was  guarded  by  perforated  zinc  so  the  queen  could 
not  get  out,  was  impregnated,  and  proved  an  excellent  queen. 
1  should  doubt  this  if  I  could  see  any  other  way  to  explain  it. 
Yet,  from  a  great  number  of  experiments,  I  feel  sure  that 
mating  in  confinement  can  never  be  made  practical,  even  if 
desirable.  And  if  lycuckart  is  correct  in  the  above  sugges- 
tion, which  is  very  probable,  it  is  not  desirable.  Some  bee- 
keepers claim  to  have  mated  queens  by  hand.  I  have  tried 
this  thoroughly,  as  also  mating  in  boxes,  green-houses,  etc., 
and  from  entire  lack  of  success  I  believe  such  mating  is  im- 
possible, at  least  with  most  bee-keepers.  J.  S.  Davitte,  of 
Georgia,  claims  to  have  mated  many  queens  in  a  large  circu- 


114  THS  bee-kkep?r's  guide; 

lar  tent.  The  drones  are  permitted  to  fly  only  in  the  tent,  and 
so  are  at  home. 

If  the  queen  fails  to  find  an  admirer  the  first  day,  she  will 
go  forth  ag-ain  and  again  till  she  succeeds.  Huber  states  that 
after  twenty-one  days  the  case  is  hopeless.  Bevan  states  that 
if  impregnated  from  the  fifteenth  to  the  twenty-first  she  will 
be  largely  a  drone-layingqueen.  That  such  absolute  dates  can 
be  fixed  in  either  of  the  above  cases  is  very  questionable.  Yet 
all  experienced  breeders  know  that  queens  kept  through  the 
winter  as  virgins  are  sure  to  remain  so.  It  is  quite  likely  that 
the  long  inactivity  of  the  reproductive  apparatus,  especially  of 
the  oviduct  and  spermatheca,  wholly  or  in  part  paralyzes  it,  so 
that  queens  that  are  late  in  mating  can  not  impregnate  the 
eggs  as  they  desire.  This  would  accord  with  what  we  know  of 
other  muscular  organs.  Berlepsch  believed  that  a  queen  that 
commenced  laying  as  a  virgin  could  never  lay  impregnated 
eggs,  even  though  she  afterwards  mated.  Langstroth  thought 
that  he  had  observed  to  the  contrary. 

If  the  queen  be  observed  after  a  successful  '•  wedding 
tour,"  she  will  be  seen  as  first  pointed  out  by  Huber,  to  bear 
the  marks  of  success  in  the  pendant  drone  appendages,  which 
are  still  held  in  the  vulva  of  the  queen. 

It  is  not  at  all  likely  that  a  queen,  after  she  has  met  a 
drone,  ever  leaves  the  hive  again  except  when  she  leaves  with 
a  swarm.  It  has  been  stated  that  an  old  queen  may  be  im- 
pregnated.    I  feel  very  certain  that  this  is  an  error. 

If  the  queen  lays  eggs  before  meeting  the  drone,  or  if  for 
any  reason  she  fail  to  mate,  her  eggs  will  only  produce  male 
bees.  This  strange  anomaly — development  of  the  eggs  with- 
out impregnation — was  discovered  and  proved  by  Dzierzon,  in 
1845.  Dr.  Dzierzon,  who,  as  a  student  of  practical  and  scien- 
tific apiculture,  ranks  very  high,  is  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  of 
Carlsmarkt,  Germany.  This  doctrine — called  parthenogenesis, 
which  means  produced  from  a  virgin — is  still  doubted  by  some 
quite  able  bee-keepers,  though  the  proofs  are  irrefragable : 

1st.  Unmated  queens  will  lay  eggs  that  will  develop,  but 
drones  always  result. 

2d.  Old  queens  often  become  drone-layers,  but  examini- 
tion  show§  that  the  spermatheca  is  void  of  seminal  fluid,     Sucli 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THB  APIARY.  I15 

an  examination  was  first  made  by  Prof.  Siebold,  the  ffteat 
German  anatomist,  in  1843,  and  later  by  I^euckart  and  Leidy 
I  have  myself  made  several  such  examinations.  The  sperma- 
theca  can  easily  be  seen  by  the  unaided  vision,  and  by  crush- 
ing It  on  a  glass  slide,  by  compressing  with  a  thin  glass  cover 
the  difference  between  the  contained  fluid  in  the  virgin  and  in 
the  impregnated  queen  is  very  patent,  even  with  a  low  power 
In  the  latter  it  is  more  viscid  and  yellow,  and  the  vesicle  more 
distended.  By  use  of  a  high  power,  the  active  spermatozoa  or 
sperm-cells  (Fig.  SO)  become  visible. 

3d.  Eggs  in  drone-cells  are  found  by  the  microscopist  to  be 
void  of  the  sperm-cells,  which  are  always  found  in  all  other 
fresh-laid  eggs.  This  most  convincing  and  interesting  obser- 
vation was  first  made  by  Von  Siebold,  at  the  suggestion  of 
Berlepsch.  It  is  quite  difficult  to  show  this.  Leuckart  tried 
before  Von  Siebold,  at  Berlepsch 's  apiary,  but  failed.  I  have 
also  tried  to  discover  these  sperm-cells  in  worker-eggs.  but  as 
yet  have  been  unsuccessful.  Siebold  has  noted  the  same  facts 
in  eggs  of  wasps. 

4th.  Dr.  Donhoff,  of  Germany,  reports  that,  in  1855,  he 
took  an  egg  from  a  drone-cell,  and  by  artificial  impregnation 
produced  a  worker-bee. 

lyate  investigation  by  Mr.  Weismann,  of  Germany,  leaves 
no  doubt  of  this  fact  of  parthenogenesis  in  the  production  of 
drone-bees. 

Parthenogenesis,  in  the  production  of  males,  has  also  been 
found  by  Siebold  to  be  true  of  other  bees  and  wasps,  and  of 
some  of  the  lower  moths  in  the  production  of  both  males  and 
females.  Adler  has  shown  that  this  agamic  reproduction  pre- 
vails among  the  Chalcididae,  a  family  of  parasitic  Hymenop- 
tera,  and  it  has  long  been  known  to  characterize  the  cynips  or 
gall-flies  ;  while  the  great  Bonnet  first  discovered  what  may  be 
noticed  on  any  summer  day  all  about  us,  even  on  the  house- 
plants  at  our  very  windows,  that  parthenogenesis  is  best  illus- 
trated by  the  aphides,  or  plant  lice.  In  the  fall  males  and 
females  appear  which  mate,  when  the  females  lay  eggs  which 
m  the  spring  produce  only  females  ;  these  again  produce  only 
females,  and  thus  on  for  several  generations,  sometimes  fifteen 
or  twenty,  till  with  the  cold  of  autumn  come  again  the  males 


116  THE   bee-keeper's   GUIDE", 

and  females.  Any  person  can  easily  demonstrate  this  fact  for 
himself.  The  summer  plant-lice  are  hatched  within  the 
mother-louse,  or  are  ovoviviparous.  It  is  easy  to  capture  a 
young  louse  just  as  it  is  born,  and  isolate  it  on  a  plant,  when 
soon  we  shall  find  it  giving  birth  to  young  lice,  though  it  has 
never  even  seen  any  louse,  male  or  female,  since  birth.  Bon- 
net observed  seven  successive  generations  of  productive  vir- 
gins. Duval  noted  nine  generations  in  seven  months,  while 
Kyber  observed  production  exclusively  by  parthenogenesis  in 
a  heated  room  for  four  years.  So  we  see  that  this  strange  and 
almost  incredible  method  of  increase  is  not  rare  in  the  great 
insect  world. 

In  two  or  three  days  after  she  is  impregnated,  the  queen, 
under  normal  circumstances,  commences  to  lay,  usually 
worker-eggs.  It  is  rare  not  to  find  eggs  by  the  tenth  day 
from  the  birth  of  the  queen.  The  queens  rarely  go  three 
weeks  before  laying.  Such  tardiness  does  not  recommend 
them.  It  is  reported  that  giving  unhatched  brood  will  start 
the  queen  to  laying.  If  this  be  true,  it  is  doubtless  explained 
by  her  receiving  different  food  from  the  workers.  If  the  con- 
dition of  the  hive  impels  to  no  further  swarming  that  season, 
no  drones  will  be  required,  and  so  only  worker-eggs  will  be 
laid.  In  many  localities,  and  in  certain  favorable  years  in  all 
localities,  however,  further  swarming  will  occur. 

It  is  frequently  noticed  that  the  young  queen  at  first  lays 
quite  a  number  of  drone-eggs.  Queen-breeders  often  observe 
this  in  their  nuclei.  This  continues  for  only  a  few  days.  This 
does  not  seem  strange.  The  act  of  freeing  the  sperm-cells 
from  the  spermatheca  is  muscular  and  voluntary,  and  that 
these  muscles  should  not  always  act  promptly  at  first,  is  not 
strange,  nor  is  it  unprecedented.  Mr.  Wagner  suggested  that 
the  size  of  the  cell  determined  the  sex,  as  in  the  small  cells  the 
pressure  on  the  abdomen  forced  the  fluid  from  the  sperma- 
theca. Mr.  Quinby  also  favored  this  view.  I  greatly  question 
this  theory.  All  observing  apiarists  have  known-eggs  to  be 
laid  in  worker-cells  ere  they  were  hardly  commenced,  when 
there  could  be  no  pressure.  In  case  of  queen-cells,  too,  if  the 
queen  does  lay  the  eggs — as  I  believe — these  would  be  unim- 
pregnated,  as  thecell  is  very  large.     I  know  the  queen  some- 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  ny 

times  passes  from  drone  to  worker  cells  very  abruptly  while 
laying:,  as  I  have  witnessed  such  a  procedure-the  same  that 
so  greatly  rejoiced  the  late   Baron   of  Berlepsch,  after  weary 
hours  of  watching-but   that  she  can  thus  control  at  the  in- 
stant this  process  of  adding  or  withholding  the  sperm-cells 
certainly  seems  not  so  strange  as  that  the  spermatheca,  hardly 
bigger  than  a  pin-head,  could  supply  these  cells   for  months 
yes,  and  for  years.     Who  that  has  seen  the  bot-fly  dart  against 
the  horse's  legs,  and  as  surely  leave  the  tiny  yellow  egg,  can 
doubt  but  that  insects  possess  very  sensitive  oviducts,  and  can 
extrude  the  minute  eggs  just  at  pleasure.     That  a  queen  may 
force  single  eggs  at  will,  past  the  mouth  of  the  spermatheca 
and  at   the  same  time  add  or  withhold  the  sperm-cells,  is  I 
think,  without  question  true.     What  gives  added  force  to  this 
view  IS  the  fact  that  other  bees,  wasps   and  ants  exercise  the 
same  volition,  and  can  have  no  aid  from  cell-pressure,  as  all 
the  eggs  are  laid  in  receptacles  of  the  same  size.     As  already 
remarked,  the  males  and  workers  of  Apis  dorsata  are  developed 
in  the  same  sized  cells,  while  the  males  of  A.  indica  are  smaller 
than   the  workers.     The  Baron   of  Berlepsch,  worthy  to  be  a 

ll!7.f."^''^°°'  ^^^  ^"""^  '^^^^^^^  *^^  °^^"^'--  He  has  shown 
that  old  drone-cells  are  as  small  as  new  worker-cells,  and  each 
harbors  its  own  brood.  Very  small  queens,  too,  make  no  mis- 
takes.  With  no  drone-cells,  the  queen  will  sometimes  lay 
drone-eggs  in  worker-cells,  in  which  drones  will  then  be  reared 
and  she  will,  if  she  must,  though  with  great  reluctance,  lay 
worker-eggs  in  drone-cells. 

Before  laying  an  egg  the  queen  takes  a  look  into  the  cell, 
probably  to  see  if  all  is  right.  If  the  cell  contains  any  honey, 
pollen,  or  an  egg,  she  usually  passes  it  by,  though,  when 
crowded,  a  queen  will  sometimes,  especiaUy  if  young,  insert 
two  or  three  eggs  in  a  cell,  and  sometimes,  when  in  such  cases 
she  drops  them,  the  bees  show  their  dislike  of  waste,  and 
appreciation  of  good  living,  by  making  a  breakfast  of  them. 
If  the  queen  find  the  cell  to  her  liking,  she  turns  about,  inserts 
her  abdomen,  and  in  an  instant  the  tiny  egg  is  glued  in  posi- 
tion (Fig.  39,  b)  to  the  bottom  of  the  cell.  ^ 

The  queen,  when  considered  in  relation  to  the  other  bees 
of  the  colony,  possesses  a   surprising  longevity.     It  is  not  un- 


118  THB  bek-kkeper's  guide; 

common  for  her  to  attain  the  age  of  three  years  in  the  full 
possession  of  her  powers,  while  queens  have  been  known  to  do 
good  work  for  five  years.  Lubbock  has  queen  ants  in  his 
nests  that  are  fifteen  or  more  years  old,  and  still  they  are 
vigorous  layers.  Queens,  often  at  the  expiration  of  one,  two, 
three  or  four  years,  depending  on  their  vigor  and  excellence, 
either  cease  to  be  fertile,  or  else  become  impotent  to  lay  im- 
pregnated eggs — the  spermatheca  having  become  emptied  of 
its  sperm-cells.  In  such  cases  the  workers  usually  supersede 
the  queen,  that  is,  they  rear  a  new  queen  before  all  the  worker- 
eggs  are  gone,  and  then  destroy  the  old  one. 

It  sometimes  happens,  though  rarely,  that  a  fine  looking 
queen,  with  the  full-formed  ovaries  and  large  spermatheca 
well  filled  with  male  fluid,  will  deposit  freely,  but  none  of  the 
eggs  will  hatch.  Readers  of  .bee-papers  know  that  I  have 
frequently  received  such  for  dissection.  I  received  one  Aug. 
12,  1900,  from  Mr.  E.  R.  Root.  The  first  one  I  ever  got  was  a 
remarkably  fine  looking  Italian,  received  from  the  late  Dr. 
Hamlin,  of  Tennessee.  All  such  queens  that  I  have  examined 
seem  perfect,  even  though  scrutinized  with  a  high-power 
objective.  We  can  only  say  that  the  egg  is  at  fault,  as  fre- 
quently transpires  with  higher  animals,  even  to  the  highest. 
These  females  are  barren ;  through  some  fault  with  the 
ovaries,  the  eggs  grown  therein  are  sterile.  To  detect  just 
what  is  the  trouble  with  the  egg  is  a  very  difficult  problem,  if 
it  is  capable  of  solution  at  all.  I  have  tried  to  determine  the 
ultimate  cause,  but  without  success.  Cases  have  also  been 
observed  where  mated  and  impregnated  queens  fail  to  lay 
impregnated  eggs.  Here  the  delicate  organism  of  the  sperma- 
theca and  its  duct  is  at  fault.  Queens  that  have  been  chilled, 
as  shown  by  Siebold,  lycuckart,  and  our  own  Langstroth,  are 
often  made  drone-layers — that  is,  they  lay  only  unimpregnated 
eggs.  I  have  also  had  one  queen  that  produced  many  her- 
maphroditic bees.  These  hermaphrodites  are  not  really  her- 
maphrodites ;  as,  so  far  as  I  have  examined,  they  have  only 
ovaries  or  testes,  but  externally  they  have  drone-organs  in 
part,  as,  for  instance,  the  appendages  of  the  head  and  thorax ; 
and  worker-organs  in  part,  as  the  abdomen,  will  be  like  that  of 
a  drone.     Indeed,  I  now  have  a   very  strange  hermaphrodite, 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF  THE   APIARY.  H^ 

Where  one  side  is  worker,  the  other  drone.     It  is  very  probable 
that  these  peculiarities  arise  from  a  diseased  condition  of  the 
queen,  or  else  from  diseased  spermatozoa.    I  have  known  one 
queen,  many  of  whose  bees  were   thus  abnormal.     If  a  queen 
IS  not  impregnated  for  three  or  four  weeks,  she  often   com- 
mences to  lay  without  impregnation,  and  then   is  a  "  drone- 
layer,"  and,  of  course,  worthless.     She  may  lay  as  regularly 
as  If  impregnated,  though  this  is  not  usual.     She  is,  of  course 
betrayed  by  the  higher  cappings,  and  exclusive  drone-brood     ' 
The  function  of  the  queen  is  simply  to  lay  eggs,  and  thus 
keep  the  colony  populous,  and  this  she  does  with   an   energy 
that  IS  fairly  startling.     A  good  queen  in  her  best  estate  will 
lay  two  or  three  thousand  eggs  a  day.     I  have  seen  a  queen  in 
my  observing  hive  lay  for  some  time  at   the  rate  of  four  eggs 
per  minute,  and  have  proved  by  actual  computation  of  brood- 
ceUs  that  a  queen  may  lay  over  three  thousand  eggs  in   a  day 
Both  Langstroth  and  Berlepsch  saw  queens  lay  at  the  rate  of 
SIX  eggs  a  minute.     The  latter  had  a  queen  that  laid  three 
thousand  and  twenty-one  eggs  in  twenty-four  hours,  by  actual 
count,  and  in  twenty  days  she  laid  fifty-seven  thousand.     This 
queen  continued  prolific   for  five  years,  and  must  have  laid, 
says  the  Baron,  at  a  low  estimate,  more  than  1,300,000  eggs' 
Dzierzon  says  queens  may  lay  1,000,000  eggs,  and  I  think  these 
authors  have  not  exaggerated.     As  already  stated,  a  queen 
may  lay  nearly  double  her  weight  of  eggs  daily.     Yet,  with 
even  these  figures  as  an  advertisement,  the  queen-bee  can  not 
boast  of    superlative  fecundity,   as  the  queen   white-ant-an 
insect  closely  related  to  the  bees  in  habits,  though  not  in  struc- 
ture, as  the  white-ants  are  lace-wings,  and  belong  to  the  order 
Neuroptera  (Isoptera),  which  includes  our  day-flies,  dragon-flies 
etc. -is  known   to  lay  over  80,000  eggs  daily.     Yet  this  poor' 
helpless  thing,  whose  abdomen   is  the  size  of  a  man's  thumb, 
and  composed  almost  wholly  of  eggs,  while  the  rest  of  her 
body  is  no  larger  than  the  same  in   our  common  ants,  has  no 
other  amusement ;  she  can   not  walk ;  she  can  not  even  feed 
herself,  or  care  for  her  eggs.     What  wonder  then  that  she 
should  attempt  big  things  in  the  way  of  egg-laying  ?    She  has 
nothing  else  to  do,  or  to  feel  proud  of. 

Different  queens  vary  as  much  in  fecundity  as  do  different 


120  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

kinds  of  life.  Some  queens  are  so  prolific  that  they  fairly 
demand  hives  of  India  rubber  to  accommodate  them,  keeping- 
their  hives  gushing  with  bees  and  profitable  activity;  while 
others  are  so  inferior  that  the  colonies  make  a  poor,  sickly 
effort  to  survive  at  all,  and  usually  succumb  early,  before  the 
adverse  circumstances  which  are  ever  waiting  to  confront  all 
life  on  the  globe.  This  lack  of  fecundity  may  be  due  to  dis- 
ease, improper  development,  or  to  special  race  or  strain.  This 
fact  promises  rich  fruit  to  the  careful,  persistent  breeder.  The 
activity  of  the  queen  is  governed  largely  by  the  activity  of 
the  workers.  The  queen  will  either  lay  sparingly,  or  stop 
altogether,  in  the  interims  of  storing  honey,  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  she  is  stimulated  to  lay  to  her  utmost  capacity 
when  all  is  life  and  activity  in  the  hive.  As  the  worker-bees 
feed  the  laying  queen,  it  is  more  than  probable  that  with  no 
nectar  to  gather,  the  food  is  withheld,  and  so  the  queen  is 
unable  to  produce  the  eggs  which  demand  a  great  amount  of 
nutritious  food  all  ready  to  be  absorbed.  Thus,  the  whole  mat- 
ter is  doubtless  controlled  by  the  workers.  This  refusal  to  lay 
when  nectar  is  wanting  does  not  hold  true,  apparently,  with 
the  Cyprian  and  Syrian  bees. 

The  old  poetical  notion  that  the  queen  is  the  revered  and 
admired  sovereign  of  the  colony,  whose  pathway  is  ever  lined 
by  obsequious  courtiers,  whose  person  is  ever  the  recipient  of 
loving  caresses,  and  whose  will  is  law  in  this  bee-hive  king- 
dom, controlling  all  the  activities  inside  the  hive,  and  leading 
the  colony  whithersoever  it  may  go,  is  unquestionably  mere 
fiction.  In  the  hive,  as  in  the  world,  individuals  are  valued 
for  what  they  are  worth.  The  queen,  as  the  most  important 
individual,  is  regarded  with  solicitude,  and  her  removal  or  loss 
is  noted  with  consternation,  as  the  welfare  of  the  colony  is 
threatened  ;  yet,  let  the  queen  become  useless,  and  she  is  dis- 
patched with  the  same  absence  of  emotion  that  characterizes 
the  destruction  of  the  drones  when  they  have  become  super- 
numeraries. It  is  very  doubtful  if  emotion  and  sentimentality 
are  ever  moving  forces  among  the  lower  animals.  There  are 
probably  certain  natural  principles  that  govern  in  the  economy 
of  the  hive,  and  anything  that  conspires  against,  or  tends  to 
intercept,  the  action  of  these  principles,  becomes  an  enemy  to 


OR,   MANUAIv  OF   THE  APIARY.  121 

the  bees.  All  are  interested,  and  doubtless  more  united  than 
is  generally  believed,  in  a  desire  to  promote  the  free  action  of 
these  principles.  No  doubt  the  principle  of  antagonism  among 
the  various  bees  has  been  overrated.  Even  the  drones,  when 
they  are  being  killed  off  in  the  autumn,  make  a  sickly  show  of 
defense,  as  much  as  to  say,  the  welfare  of  the  colony  demands 
that  such  worthless  vagrants  should  be  exterminated.  How 
relentlessly  the  bees  drag  out  even  the  worker-bees  that  have 
become  loaded  with  the  pollen-masses  of  milkweed,  or  other- 
wise disabled.  Such  bees  are  of  no  more  use,  and  useless 
members  are  not  tolerated  in  the  bee-community.  It  is  most 
probable  that  what  tends  most  for  the  prosperity  of  the  colony 
is  well  understood  by  all,  and  without  doubt  there  is  harmo- 
nious action  among  all  the  denizens  of  the  hive  to  foster  that 
which  will  advance  the  general  welfare,  or  to  make  war  on 
whatever  may  tend  to  interfere  with  it.  If  the  course  of  any 
of  the  bees  seems  wavering  and  inconsistent,  we  may  rest 
assured  that  circumstances  have  changed,  and  that  could  we 
perceive  the  bearing  of  all  the  surrounding  conditions,  all 
would  appear  consistent  and  harmonious.  The  holding  of 
young  queens  in  the  cells,  and  guarding  them,  seems  an 
exception. 

THE  DRONES. 

These  are  the  male  bees,  and  are  generally  found  in  the 
hive  only  from  May  to  November,  though  they  may  remain  all 
winter,  and  are  not  infrequently  absent  during  the  summer. 
Their  presence  or  absence  depends  upon  the  present  and  pros- 
pective condition  of  the  colony.  If  they  are  needed,  or  likely 
to  be  needed,  then  they  are  present.  There  are  in  nature  sev- 
eral hundred,  and  often  thousands,  in  each  colony.  The  num- 
ber may  and  should  be  greatly  reduced  by  the  apiarist.  The 
drones  (Figs.  46,  47)  are  shorter  than  the  queen,  being  less  than 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  are  more  robust  and  bulky 
than  either  the  queen  or  workers.  The  drones  weigh  about 
1-2000  of  a  pound,  while  the  workers  only  weigh  1-5000.  They 
are  easily  recognized,  when  flying,  by  their  loud,  startling 
hum.  As  in  other  societies,  the  least  useful  make  the  most 
noise.    This  loud  hum  would  seem  to  be  caused  by  the  less 


122 


THE  bbe-keeper's  guide; 


rapid  vibration  of  their  large,  heavy  wings.  Landois  showed 
many  years  since,  that  the  hum  of  bees  and  other  insects,  was 
due  first  to  vibrations  of  wings,  secondly  to  vibrations  of  the 
abdominal  rings,  and,  thirdly,  to  what  he  styled  true  voice  in 
the  thoracic  spiracles,  where  there  are  cavities  which  he 
thought  were  voice  cavities.  He  thought  the  humming  tone  of 
bees  and  other  insects  came  from  the  spiracles.  The  drone's 
flight  is  more  heavy  and  lumbering  than  that  of  the  workers. 
Their  ligula  (Fig.  49),  labial  palpi  and  maxillae— like  the  same 


Fig.  46. 


Fig.  48. 


Drone-Bees,  magnified,  from 

Newman. 


in  the  queen-bee — are  short,  while  their  jaws  (Fig.  65,  a)  pos- 
sess the  rudimentary  tooth,  and  are  much  the  same  in  form  as 
those  of  the  queen,  but  are  heavier,  though  not  so  strong  as 
those  of  the  workers.  Their  eyes  (Figs.  3,  47)  are  very  promi- 
nent, meet  above,  and  thus  the  simple  eyes  are   thrown  for- 


OR,  MANUAI^  OF  THE  APIARY. 


123 


ward.  The  omtnatidia,  or  simple  ejes  which  form  the  com- 
pound eyes  of  the  drone  (Figs.  3,  47),  are,  as  shown  by  I.aco- 
daire,  more  than  twice  as  numerous  as  those  of  either  queen  or 
worker.  The  drones  also  have  longer  and  broader  antenna, 
with  far  more  of  the  olfactory  cavities,  though  not  so  many 
tactile  hairs  as  are  found  in  the  antennae  of  the  workers. 
Entomologists  now  believe  that  the  better  sight  and  smell,  as 
also  the  large  wings,  are  very  useful  to  the  drone.  They  make 
success  more  probable,  as  the  drone  flies  forthwith  hundreds  of 
other  drones  in  quest  of  a  mate.  We  can  also  see  how,  through 
the  law  of  natural  selection,  all  these  peculiarities  are  con- 

Fig.  49. 


mads  of  Worker,  Queen  and  Drone,  shotoing  comparative  length  of  Tongues, 
from  Cowan. 

B  Queen.  C  Drone. 


A  Worker. 


stantly  strengthened.  Their  posterior  legs  are  convex  on  the 
outside  (Fig.  48),  so,  like  the  queens,  they  have  no  pollen- 
baskets.  As  we  should  expect,  the  branching  hairs,  both  on 
the  body  and  legs,  are  almost  absent  in  drones  ;  what  there  are 
are  coarse,  and  probably  aid  in  mating.  The  drones  are  with- 
out the  defensive  organ,  having  no  sting,  while  their  special 
sex-organs  (Fig.  37)  are  very  interesting.  These  have  been 
fully  described  and  illustrated  by  Leuckart.  The  testes  are 
situated  in  the  abdomen,  in  an  analogous  position  to  that  of 
the  ovaries  in  the  queen.  Like  these  organs  in  higher  ani- 
mals, there  are  in  each  testis  hundreds  of  tubes  in  which  are 
developed  the  sperm-cells  in  bundles.     As  Leuckart  shows,  the 


124  THE  BEK-KBEPER'S  GUIDE  ; 

testes  are  larger  in  the  pupa  than  in  the  imago,  for  even  then 
the  spermatozoa  have  begun  to  descend  to  the  versiculae  semi- 
nales  (Fig.  37,  c,  c).  Thus,  in  old  drones,  the  testes  have 
shrunken.  The  spermatozoa  are  very  long,  with  a  marked 
head  (Fig.  50),  which,  as  Mr.  Cowan  remarked  to  me,  look 
like  cat-tail  flags,  as  there  is  a  short,  small  projection  beyond 
the  head.  These  sperm-cells  are  so  very  small,  and  so  long 
and  slender,  that  it  is  difficult  to  isolate  or  trace  them  ;  hence, 
in  microscopic  preparations  they  look  like  one  hopeless  tangle 
(Fig.  50).    It  is  incomprehensible  how  they  can  be  separated 

Fig.  50. 


Spermatozoa. — Original. 

and  passed,  one,  two,  or  more  at  a  time,  by  the  queen  as  the 
eggs  are  to  be  impregnated.  Appended  to  the  versiculaa  semi- 
nales  (Fig.  37,  c,c)  just  where  they  pass  to  the  ejaculatory  duct 
are  two  large  glandular  sacs  (Fig.  37,  d),  which  add  mucus  to 
the  seminal  fluid.  The  ejaculatory  duct  (Fig.  37,  e)  is  rather 
long  and  very  muscular.  This  passes  to  a  pouch  (Fig.  37,/), 
where  the  sperm-cells  are  massed,  preparatory  to  coition. 
Leuckart  called  this  mass  of  spermatozoa  the  spermatophore. 
This  is  what  is  passed  to  the  spermatheca  of  the  queen  during 
coition.  Below  this  is  the  organ  proper.  It  has,  as  may  be 
seen  by  pressing  a  drone,  three  pairs  of  appendages,  somewhat 
horn-like,  and  certain  roughness  or  pleats  (Fig.  37,  k,  i),  which 
serve  to  make  connection  more  close  during  coition.  These 
little  barb-like  teeth,  rough   projections  and  horns,  as  they  are 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THB  APIARY.  125 

grasped  and  firmly  pressed  by  the  vulva  or  enlargement  just 
at  the  end  of  the  oviduct  of  the  queen,  are  held  as  in  a  vice  • 
and  so  we  see  why  they  are  torn  from  the  drone  during  coition. 
As  Leuckart  has  so  admirably  described,  the  external  organs 
of  the  drone  are  drawn  up  into  the  so-called  bean  or  sac  (Fig. 
37,/),  as  the  finger  of  a  glove,  to  use  the  words  of  Girard,  often 
turns  in  as  we  draw  the  glove  off  the  hand.     As  we  press  a 
drone,  or  hold  it  in  our  warm  hand  as  it  has  just  returned  from 
a  long  flight,  when  its  air  sacs  are  distended  ;  or  when  it  meets 
the  queen,  the  sexual  act  is  accomplished  wholly  or  in   part, 
and  the  external  organ  is  everted  or  turned  out  as  we  turn  the 
glove-finger  out.    In  case  of  coitus,  this  eversion  is  very  com- 
plete,sothat  the  bean  or  sac  (Fig.  37,/)  turns  out,  and  the 
spermatophore  is  passed  into  the  oviduct  of  the  queen,  and  by 
her  muscular   oviduct    pushed   into  the  spermatheca.     This 
seems  a  wonderful  operation,  almost  beyond  the  possible.    Yet 
the  passage  of  the  egg  from  the  ovaries  in   higher  animals  is 
almost  as  surprising.     Leuckart  is  undoubtedly  correct  in  sug- 
gesting that  for  full  and  complete  impregnation  the  drone 
needs    tense  muscles,  full  air  sacs,  and  thus  the  vehement 
exercise  on  the  wing  is  very  important  in   the  sexual  act.     If 
this  be  true,  then  impregnation  of  the  queen  in  confinement  is 
as  undesirable  as  it  seems  to  be  exceptional.     While  it  may  not 
be  absolutely  necessary  to  have  these  conditions  for  impreg- 
nation, as  I  think  I  have  positive  proof,  it  doubtless  is  better, 
and  usually  necessary,   that  they  exist.      At  this  time  the 
queen's  ovaries  are  small,  and  thus   her  smaller  size   before 
impregnation.     Hence,  there  is  lack  of  high   tension   within 
the  abdomen  of  the  queen,  which  also  tends  to  aid  in  the  sex- 
ual act. 

The  drone  has  not  the  wax-glands  beneath  the  abdomen. 
On  the  ventral  plates  are  scattering  compound  hairs,  which 
doubtless  have  importance  in  the  sexual  act.  The  drone,  like 
the  queen,  is  without  the  lower  head  or  pollen-digesting  glands, 
and  so  is  largely  fed  by  the  workers.  Schonfeld  has  proved 
this  by  caging  drones  in  full  colonies.  If  caged  in  a  single- 
walled  cage,  so  as  to  be  accessible  to  the  workers,  they  live ; 
if  in  a  double-walled  cage  they  all  soon  die,  though  all  have 
abundant  honey.    While  honey  is  necessary  it  is  not  enough. 


126  THE  bee-keeper's  guide  ; 

It  was  discovered  by  Dzierzon  in  1845,  that  the  drones 
hatch  from  unimpregnat'ed  eggs.  This  strange  phenomenon, 
seemingly  so  incredible,  is,  as  has  been  shown  in  speaking  of 
the  queen,  easily  proved  and  beyond  question.  These  eggs 
may  come  from  an  unimpregnated  queen,  a  laying  worker— 
which  will  soon  be  described — or  an  impregnated  queen  which 
may  voluntarily  prevent  impregnation.  It  is  asserted  by  some 
that  the  workers  can  change  a  worker-egg  to  a  drone-egg  at 
will.  When  the  workers  are  able  to  abstract  the  sperm-cells, 
which  are  so  small  that  we  can  see  them  only  by  using  a  high- 
power  microscope,  then  we  may  expect  to  see  wheat  turn  to 
chess.  Such  eggs  will  usually  be  placed  in  the  larger  horizon- 
tal cells  (Fig.  78,  a),  in  manner  already  described. 

The  drone-cells  are  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
project  beyond  the  worker-cells,  so  they  are  a  little  more  than 
one-half  an  inch  long.  Very  rarely  drones  are  produced  in 
worker-cells.  Such  drones  are  diminutive,  and  undesirable  in 
the  apiary.  As  stated  by  Bevan,  the  drone  feeds  six  and  a 
half  days  as  a  larva  before  the  cell  is  capped.  As  the  micro- 
scope shows,  undigested  pollen  is  given  to  the  drone-larvae 
after  the  fourth  day,  which  is  not  true  of  either  the  queen  or 
worker.  The  capping  of  the  drone-cells  is  very  convex,  and 
projects  beyond  the  plane  of  the  same  in  worker-cells,  so  that 
the  drone-brood  is  easily  distinguished  from  worker,  and  from 
the  darker  color — the  wax  being  thicker  and  less  pure — the 
capping  of  both  drone  and  worker  brood-cells  enables  us  easily 
to  distinguish  them  from  honey-cells.  In  twenty-four  days 
from  the  laying  of  the  eggs,  the  drones  come  forth  from  the 
cells.  Of  course,  variation  of  temperature  and  other  condi- 
tions, as  variable  amount  of  diet,  may  slightly  retard  or  ad- 
vance the  development  of  any  brood,  in  the  different  stages. 
The  drones — in  fact  all  bees — when  they  first  emerge  from  the 
cells,  are  gray,  and  are  easily  distinguished  from  the  mature 
bee. 

Just  what  the  longevity  of  the  male  bee  is,  I  am  unable  to 
state.  It  is  probable,  judging  from  analogy,  that  they  live 
till  accident,  the  worker-bees,  or  the  performance  of  their 
natural  function,  cause  their  death.  The  worker-bees  may 
kill  off  the  drones  at  any  time,  which  they  do  by  constantly 


QR,   MANUAI,  OF  THB  APIARY.  127 

^'■!uu  1^°"^  ^°"yi°8^  them  ;  though  principally.  I  think,  by 
withholdxngr  their  albuminous  food.  They  may  also  destroy 
the  drone-brood.  It  is  not  very  rare  to  see  workers  carrying 
out  immature  drones  even  in  midsummer.  At  the  same  time 
they  may  destroy  inchoate  queens.  Such  action  is  prompted 
by  a  sudden  check  in  the  yield  of  honey,  and  in  case  of  drones 
IS  common  only  at  the  close  of  the  season.  The  bees  seem 
very  cautious  and  far-sighted.  If  the  signs  of  the  times  pre- 
sage a  famine,  they  stay  all  proceedings  looking  to  the  increase 
of  colonies.  On  the  other  hand,  nectar  secretion  by  the 
flowers,  rapid  increase  of  brood,  crowded  quarters-whatever 
the  age  of  the  queen-are  sure  to  bring  many  of  the  male  bees 
while  any  circumstances  that  indicate  a  need  of  drones  in  the 
near  future,  like  loss  or  impotency  of  the  queen,  will  prevent 
their  destruction  even  in  late  autumn. 

The  function  of  the  drones  is  solely  to  impregnate  the 
queen,  though  when  present  they  add  to  the  heat  of  the  hive 
Yet  for  this  they  were  far  better  replaced  by  worker-bees.* 
That  their  nutrition  is  active,  is  suggested  by  the  fact  that 
upon  dissection,  we  usually  find  their  capacious  honey-stomachs 
filled  with  honey. 

Impregnation  of  the  queen  always  takes  place,  as  before 
stated,  while  on  the  wing,  outside  the  hive,  usually  during  the 
heat  of  a  warm,  sunshiny  day.  After  mating,  as  before  sug- 
gested, the  drone-organs  adhere  to  the  queen,  and  may  be  seen 
hanging  to  her  for  some  hours.  The  copulatory  act  is  fatal  to 
the  drone.  By  holding  a  drone  just  returned  from  a  long 
flight  in  the  hand,  the  ejection  of  the  sex-organs  is  quickly 
produced,  and  is  always  followed  by  immediate  death.  As  the 
queen  meets  only  a  single  drone,  and  that  only  once,  it  might 
be  asked  why  nature  was  so  improvident  as  to  decree  hundreds 
of  drones  to  an  apiary  or  colony,  whereas  a  score  would  sufiice 
as  well.  Nature  takes  cognizance  of  the  importance  of  the 
queen,  and  as  she  goes  forth  amidst  the  myriad  dangers  of  the 
outer  world,  it  is  safest  and  best  that  her  stay  abroad  be  not 
protracted,  that  the  experience  be  not  repeated,  and,  especially 
that  her  meeting  a  drone  be  noi  delayed.  Hence,  the  super- 
abundance of  drones-especially  under  natural  conditions, 
isolated  in  forest  homes,  where  ravenous  birds  are  ever  on  the 


128  THE  BEE-KEBPER'S  GUIDE; 

alert  for  insect  game — is  most  wise  and  provident.  Nature  is 
never  "  penny  wise  and  pound  foolish."  In  our  apiaries  the 
need  is  wanting,  and  the  condition,  as  it  exists  in  nature,  is 
not  enforced.  Again,  close  impregnation  or  in-breeding, 
which  is  not  conducive  to  animal  vigor,  is  thus  prevented, 
where  otherwise  it  would  be  necessary  and  always  the  practice. 
The  fact  that  parthenogenesis  prevails  in  the  production 
of  drones,  has  led  to  the  theory  that  from  a  pure  queen,  how- 
ever mated,  must  ever  come  a  pure  drone.  My  own  experience 
and  observation,  which  have  been  very  extended,  and  under 
circumstances  most  favorable  for  a  correct  judgment,  have 
fully  and  completely  confirmed  this  theory.  Yet,  if  telegony 
or  the  impure  mating  of  our  cows,  horses,  and  fowls  renders 
the  females  of  mixed  blood  ever  afterward,  as  is  believed  and 
taught  by  many  who  would  seem  most  competent  to  judge- 
though  I  must  say  I  am  very  skeptical  in  the  matter — then  we 
must  look  closely  as  to  our  bees,  for  certainly,  if  a  mammal, 
and  especially  if  a  fowl,  is  tainted  by  impure  mating,  then  we 
may  expect  the  same  of  insects.  In  fowls  such  influence,  if  it 
exist,  must  come  simply  from  the  presence  in  the  female 
generative  organs  of  the  sperm-cells,  or  spermatozoa,  and  in 
mammals,  too,  there  is  little  more  than  this,  for  though  they 
are  viviporous,  so  that  the  union  and  contact  of  the  offspring 
and  mother  seem  very  intimate  during  the  fetal  development, 
yet  there  is  no  intermingling  of  blood,  for  a  membrane  ever 
separates  that  of  the  mother  from  that  of  the  fetus,  and  only 
the  nutritious  and  waste  elements  pass  from  one  to  the  other. 
To  claim  that  the  mother  is  tainted  through  the  circulation,  is 
like  claiming  that  the  same  result  would  follow  her  inhaling 
the  breath  of  her  progeny  after  birth.  If  such  taint  be  pro- 
duced, it  probably  comes  through  the  power  of  a  cell  to  change 
those  cells  contiguous  to  it.  That  cells  have  such  power  is 
proved  every  day  in  case  of  wounds,  and  the  spread  of  any 
disease.  I  can  only  say  that  I  believe  this  whole  matter  is 
still  involved  in  doubt,  and  still  needs  more  careful,  scientific 
and  prolonged  observation.  I  have  tried  very  extensive  experi- 
ments with  both  chickens  and  bees,  and  all  the  evidence  was 
against  telegony.  My  brown  Leghorn  hens  ran  with  light 
Brahma   roosters   all  winter,  then  were  removed  for  three 


OR,  MANUAL   OF   THE   APIARY. 


129 


weeks,  after  which  they  were  purely  mated,  and  every  one  of 
the  two  hundred  chickens  were  without  any  Brahma  marks. 
Even  the  legrs  were  absolutely  clean.  I^ikewise,  thousands  of 
drones,  reared  from  pure  Syrian  queens,  but  mated  to  Italian 
drones,  showed  not  the  slig^htest  Italian  taint.  I  believe  teleg- 
ony  is  a  very  doubtful  hypothesis. 

THE   NEUTERS,    OR   WORKER-BEES. 

These,  called  "  the  bees  "  by  Aristotle,  and   even  by  Wild- 
man  and  Bevan,  are  by  far   the  most   numerous  individuals  of 

Fig.  51. 


Worker-Bee  much  magnified,  from  Newman. 

the  hive— there  being-  from  15,000  to  40,000  in  every  good  col- 
ony. It  is  possible  for  a  colony  to  be  even  much  more  popu- 
lous than  this.  (Lubbock  says  that  there  are  often  50,000 
worker-ants  in  a  nest.)  These  are  also  the  smallest  bees  of 
the  colony,  as  they  measure  but  little  more  than  one-half  of 
an  inch  in  length  (Fig.  51.)    As  already  stated,  it  takes  about 


130  THE   BEE-KEEPER'S   GUIDE  ; 

5,000  worker-bees  to  weigh  a  pound.  Prof.  W.  R.  Lazenby 
found  the  weight  of  a  worker  to  be  .0799  grams,  a  load  of 
honey  weighed  .043  grams.  This  is  maximum.  The  average 
is  .022  grams  ;  a  load  of  pollen,  weighs  .006  grams.  Prof. 
Lazenby  is  probably  correct  in  the  assertion  that  usually  only 
honey  or  pollen  is  carried  by  the  bees  ;  but  I  have  repeatedly 
known  of  bees  carrying  both  honey  and  pollen  at  the  same 
time. 

The  workers — as  taught  by  Schirach,  and  proved  by  Mile. 
Jurine,  of  Geneva,  Switzerland,  who,  at  the  request  of  Huber, 
sought  for  and  found,  by  aid  of   her  microscope,  the  abortive 

Fig.  52.  Fig.  S3. 


Ovaries  of  Worker-Bee,  from  Ovaries  of  Laying-  Worker,  from 

Leuckart.  Leuckart. 

ovaries  (Fig.  52)  are  undeveloped  females.  Rarely,  and  prob- 
ably very  rarely  except  when  a  colony  is  long  or  often  queen- 
less,  as  is  frequently  true  of  our  nuclei,  these  bees  are  so  far 
developed  as  to  produce  eggs,  which,  of  course,  would  always 
be  drone-eggs.  Such  workers — known  as  "•.fertile  " — were 
first  noticed  by  Riem,  while  Huber  saw  one  in  the  act  of  tg^- 
aying.  Paul  L.  Viallon  and  others  have  seen  the  same  thing 
often.  Several  laying  workers,  sent  me  by  Mr.  Viallon,  were 
examined,  and  the  eggs  and  ovaries  (Fig.  53)  were  plainly 
visible.  Leuckart  found,  as  seen  in  the  figure,  the  rudiment 
of  the  spermatheca  in  both  the  common  and  the  laying  worker. 
Except  in  the  power  to  produce  eggs,  they  seem  not  unlike  the 
other  workers.  Huber  supposed  that  these  were  reared  in  cells 
contiguous  to  royal  cells,  and  thus  received  royal  food  by 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THR  APIARY. 


131 


accident.     The  fact,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Quinby.  that  these  occur 
in  colonies  where  queen-larv^  were  never  reared,  is  fatal  to 
the  above  theory      I^angstroth  and  Berlepsch  thought  that 
these  bees  while  larvae,  were  fed,  though   too  sparingly,  with 
the  royal  aliment,  by  bees  in  need  of  a  queen,  and  hence  the 
accelerated  development.     As  already  stated,  the  queen-larva 
is  fed  different  and  more  abundant  food  than  is  the  worker 
and  hence  her  accelerated  and  varied  development.    Is  it  not 
possible  that  these  laying  workers  receive  an  excess  of  food 
as  larvae  ?    Again,  we  have  seen  that  laying  workers  occur  in 
hopelessly  queenless  colonies  ;  and  that  queens  are  fed  by  the 
workers.     May  it   not  be  that  colonies  hopelessly  queenless 
take  to  feeding  some  special  workers  the  chyle,  and  thus  arise 
the  laying  workers?      These  are    interesting  inquiries  that 
await  solution.    The  generative  organs  are  very  sensitive 
and  exceedingly  susceptible  to   impressions,  and  we  may  yet 
have  much  to  learn  as  to  the  delicate  forces  which   will  move 
them  to  growth  and  activity.    Though   these  laying  workers 
are  a  poor  substitute  for  a  queen,  as  thev  are  incapable  of 
producing  any  bees  but  drones,  and  are  surely  the  harbingers 
of  death  and  extinction  to  the  colony,  yet  they  seem  to  satisfy 
the  workers,  for  often  the  latter  will  not  brook  the  presence  of 
a  queen  when  a  laying  worker  is  in  the  hive,  frequently  will 
not  suffer  the  existence  in  the  hive  of  a  queen-cell,  even  though 
capped.    They  seem  to  be  satisfied,  though  they  have  very 
slight  reason  to  be  so.     These  laying  workers  lay  indifferent'y 
in  large  or  small  cells-often   place  several  eggs  in   a  single 
cell,   and   show    their  incapacity  in   various  ways.     I^aying 
workers  seem  to  appear  more  quickly  and  in  greater  abundance 
in  colonies  of  Cyprian   and  Syrian   bees,  after  they  become 
hopelessly  queenless,  than  in  Italian  colonies. 

The  maxilla  and  labium  of  the  worker-bee  (Fig.  56)  are 
much  elongated  (Fig.  54).  The  maxillae  (Fig.  54,  A,  mx,  mx) 
are  deeply  grooved,  and  are  hinged  to  the  head  by  strong 
chitinous  rods  (Fig.  54,  A,  c,  c,  St,  St),  to  which  are  attached 
the  muscles  which  move  these  parts.  The  gutter-like  extremi- 
ties (Fig.  54,  A,  I,  I)  are  stiffened  with  chitine,  and,  when 
approximated,  form  a  tube  which  is  continued  by  a  membrane 
to  the  mouth-opening  of  the  pharynx,  just  between  the  bases 


132 


THE  BEE-KEEPER  S  GUIDE; 


Fig.  54. 


Tongue  of  Worker-Bee,  rmich  magnified. — Original. 


mx  mx  Maxillae.  mp,  mp  Max.  palpi. 

b  b  Lora.  o  Sub-mentum. 

c  c  Cardines.  m  Men  turn. 

St,  St  Stipes.  p,  p,  Paraglossse. 

I,  I  Laciniae.  B  Ligula,  with  sac 
«  Colorless  membrane.        distended. 

S  Sheath.  A  Maxillae  and  labium.  C  Cross-section  oi 

It  Tubular  rod.  ligula. 

(The  above  figure  is  drawn  to  the  same  scale  as  Fig.  27.) 


k  k  Labial  palpi. 

t  Tongue. 
/Funnel. 
iB  Tubular  rod. 
s  s  Colorless  membrane. 

f  Funnel. 


OR,    MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  I33 

Of  the  jaws.    This  tube  forms  the  largest  channel  through 
which  nectar  passes  to  the  pharynx.     The  labium  varies  in 
ength    from     .23     to    .27    of    an    inch.      By  the    sub-men- 
c!?"".    .'^;       '  ^'  ''^   ^""^  ^^°  chitinous  rods,   the  lora  (Fig. 
54,  A,  b,  b).  It  is  hinged  to  the  maxillae.     The  base  or  mentum 
IS  chitinous  beneath  and  membranous  above.     From  the  men- 
turn  extends  the  tongue  or  Hgula  (Fig.  54,  A,  t),  the  paraglossae 
(*ifi:.   54    A,p,p),  sac-like  organs  which  connect  with  the 
cavity  of  the  mentum,  and  so  are  distended  with   blood  when 
the  mentum  is  pressed.     They  also  stand  out  like  leaves  or 
plates,  and  aid  in  directing  the  nectar  which  is  drawn  through 
the  hgula  into  the  mouth  (Fig.  16).    The  labial  palpi  (Fig.  54, 
A,  k,  k)  are  four  jointed,  and  in  arrangement,  form  and  func- 
tion resemble  the  maxUlae.     The  tongue  or  ligula  consists  of 
an  annulated  sheath  (Fig.  54,  C,  S)  which  is  slitted  along  its 
under  side  to  near  the  end.     This  is  very  hairy.     Within  this 
is  a  tubular  rod  (Fig.  54,  ^  and  C,  R)  which   is  also   slitted 
along  Its  under  side  to  near  the  end,  and  opens  above  at  its 
base  between  the  paraglosss  (Fig.  54,  C).    Bach  margin  of 
this  shtted  rod  is  united  by  a  thin  pubescent  membrane  to  the 
corresponding  margin  of  the  surrounding  sheath  (Fig.  54   C  s) 
^o  far  as  I  know  I  was  the  first  to  discover  this  membrane.) 
Hence  any  pressure  within  the  annular  sheath  may  throw  the 
central  rod  out  (Fig.  54,  B,  R).    This  results  when  we  press  on 
the  mentum  ;  as  the  blood  pushes  into  the  sheath  and  straight- 
ens the  folded  membrane  (Fig.  54,  C,  s).    The  bee  then  can 
take  nectar  in  three  ways,  first  rapidly  when   sipping  from 
flowers  containing  much   nectar  (Figs.  54,  A,  57,  o,  o)  by  the 
large   channels  formed    by  approximating  its  maxillae  and 
labial  palpi   (Fig.  54,  A,  Fig.  57,  o,  o) ;   secondly,  slowly  from 
deep  tubular  flowers,  when  it  sips  through  the  central  rod ; 
and,  thirdly,  it  may  lap  from  a  smeared  surface  because  of  the 
slitted  ligula.     By  use  of  colored  liquids  I  have  demonstrated 
that  the  bee  does  actually  sip  in  all  these  ways.     At  the  end  of 
the  ligula  there  is  a  funnel  (Fig.  54,  A,/,  56,  b). 

Strange  to  say  the  structure  and  physiology  of  the  tongue 
of  the  honey-bee  were  more  correctly  explained  by  old  Swam- 
merdam,  than  by  most  modern  writers.  Both  he  and  Reaumur 
were  quite  accurate  in  their  descriptions.    Wolff,  in  his  ele- 


134 


THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE  ; 


gant  monograph  from  which  I  have  taken  several  figures, 
described  with  beautiful  illustrations  the  mouth  organs  of  the 
honey-bee,  but  was  in  doubt  as  to  their  physiology.  Dr. 
Hyatt,  of  New  York,  did  much  to  explain  the  anatomy  of  the 
bee's  tongue  ;  but  so  far  as  I  know  I  was  the  first  to  explain 
accurately  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  this  organ.  "Within 
the  mentum  (Fig.  55,  C,  m)  are  strong  muscles  for  retracting 

Fig.  55. 


Tongue  extended  for 
sucking. 

m  Maxillae. 

L  Ligula. 
s  m  Sub-mentum. 

JD  Duct  from  upper 
head  and  tho- 
racic glands. 


Tongue  bent  under  Head. 


JR  Retractor  muscles..  The 
opening  opposite  L.  at  upper 
base  of  tongue  between  par- 
aglossae.     All  from  Wolff. 


Base  of  Labium. 


the  organ.  The  force  of  suction  is  doubtless  analogous  to  the 
act  of  drinking  on  our  own  part.  The  rhythmical  motion  of 
the  ligula  in  sipping  honey  is  thus  explained.  By  the  muscles 
of  the  mouth  the  cavity  is  enlarged,  producing  suction,  when 
by  pressure  swallowing  is  accomplished. 

When   not  in   use,  the  tongue  with   the  attendant  mouth 
organs,  are  bent  back  under  the  head  (Fig.  55,  B). 

GLANDULAR   ORGANS. 

These    important    organs,    which     have     been    so    fully 
described  by  Siebold,  WolflF,  and  especially  by  Schiemenz,  are 


or,  manual  of  the  apiary. 
Fig.  56. 


135 


Head  and  Tongue  of  Bee,  magnified  twelve  times. 
(From  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


a  Antenna, 
m  Mandibles. 
g  Epipharynx. 


mxp  Maxillary  palpus. 
p  g  Paraglossa. 
m  I  Maxilla. 


Ip  Labial  palpus. 
I  Ligula. 
h  Funnel  of  tongue. 


136  THE   BEB-KKKPER'S  GUIDE; 

SO  intimately  connected  with  the  mouth  organs,  are  so  evi- 
dently useful  in  digestion,  and  are  so  well  developed  in  the 
worker-bees,  that  they  deserve  full  consideration.  All  the 
glands  have  a  chitinous  inner  intivna  and  outer  propria,  and  a 
middle  epithelial  membrane. 

The  spinning  gland  of  the  larval  bee  is  a  simple  tubular 
gland,  and  is  well  illustrated  by  Schiemenz  {Fig.  58).  On 
each  side  within  the  head  of  the  worker-bee  (Fig.  59,  u  h  g)  are 
large  glands,  discovered  by  Meckel  in  1846,  and  fully  described 
by  Siebold  in  1870,  which  are  very  rudimentary  in  the  queen 
and  entirely  absent  in  the  drone.  They  are  often  called  the 
lower   head-glands.      These  are    in   form  of  the  meibomian 

Fig.  57. 


Cross  section  of  Tongue  in  use,  after  Cowan. 

1 1  Labial  palpi.  o  o  Tube  for  sucking  the  nectar. 

m  m  Maxillae.  p  Overlapping  maxillae. 

glands  in  our  own  eyelids  ;  that  is,  a  long  duct  bears  many 
follicles  rich  with  secreting  cells,  the  whole  looking  like  a 
compound  leaf  with  small  leaflets.  Dr.  Packard  says  each 
follicle  is  unicellular.  "While  all  the  others  are  acinose.  The 
ducts  empty  on  the  floor  of  the  mouth.  These  glands  are  very 
marked  in  nurse-bees,  but  smaller  in  aged  bees.  Schiemenz 
believes  that  these  glands  secrete  the  food  for  the  larval  bees 
and  also  for  the  laying  queen.  Their  large  size,  their  full 
development  only  in  the  nurse-bees,  and  their  entire  absence 
in  queen  and  drones,  surely  seem  to  give  great  force  to  this 
view.  As  already  stated,  the  queen-larva  is  fed  very  liberally, 
and  almost  exclusively,  of  this  so-called  bee-milk.  Berlepsch 
says  that  the  little  pollen  sometimes  (?)  found  in  the  digestive 
tube  of  the  queen-larva  is  accidental.  The  worker-larva  re- 
ceives less  of  this  secretion,  and  to  that  fed  to  the  drone  is 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY.  I37 

added,  just  at  the  last,  some  partially  digested  pollen  which  is 
shed  when  the  alimentary  canal  is  moulted  with  the  last  larval 
skin.  The  fact  that  undigested  pollen  is  found  in  the  larval 
food  shows  that  this  food  is  from  the  stomach,  and  is  not  a 
secretion.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  difference  which  Dr. 
Planta  and  others  find  in  the  composition  of  the  larval  food  of 
worker,  queen  and  drone  larvae  is  wholly  due  to  this  partially 
digested  pollen  which  is  withheld  from  the  inchoate  queen  and 
workers. 

There  are  also  large  compound  racemose  or  acinose  glands 
(Fig.  59,  I  hg)  in  the  head,  and  also  a  similar  pair  (Fig,  58,  I g) 

Fig.  58. 


Spinning  Oland  of  Larva,  arid  cross  section  of  same,  after  Schiemem. 

C  Gland.  S  Sinus. 

/Duct.  i>  Common  duct. 

in  the  thorax,  which  are  by  some  thought  to  be  the  modified 
spinning  glands  of  the  larva.  These  four  glands  unite  into  a 
common  duct,  which  passes  through  the  mentum  and  opens 
just  at  the  base  of  tongue  on  top  in  the  groove  between  the 
paraglossae  (Fig.  55,  C,  L,  and  56).  The  thoracic  glands  were 
discovered  by  Ramdohr  in  1811,  while  Meckel  also  discovered 
the  second  pair  of  cephalic  glands,  these  are  the  upper  head- 
glands  ;  Schiemenz  is  probably  correct  in  thinking  that  these 
glands,  which  are  present  in  all  bees,  are  for  digesting  the 


138 


ths  beb-keeper's  guide; 


nectar.  The  cane-sugar  of  nectar  is  certainly  digested  or 
changed  into  the  more  osmotic  and  assimilable  glucose-like 
sugar  of  honey.  Very  likely  these  compound  racemose  glands 
supply  the  digestive  ferment  which   accomplishes   this  part  of 

Fig.  59. 


Olatid  System  of  Bee,  after  Oirard. 


digestion.  We  similarly  digest  all  the  cane-sugar  that  we  eat. 
As  honey  is  not  always  fully  digested,  the  drones  and  queens, 
as  well  as  the  workers,  possess  these  glands. 

Wolff's  glands  are  large  follicular  glands  (Fig.  60),  situated 
at  the  base  of  the  mandibles.  From  their  position  we  might 
suppose  that  their  secretion  was  useful  in  forming  wax  into 
comb,  but  their  large  size  in  the  queens,  and  the  fact  that  the 


OR,    MANUAt   OP   The   apiary. 


139 


secretion  from  them  is  acid,  would  rather  argue  that  they  like 
the  racemose  glands,  were  also  digestive  in  their  function  I 
would  suggest  that  we  call  the  thoracic  glands,  the  glands  of 
Ramdohr;  the  racemose  glands  of  the  head,  the  glands  of 
Meckel,  and  the  other  glands  of  the  head-glands  of  Siebold,  in 
compliment  to  the  excellent  work  which  has  been  done  in  their 
study  and  elucidation  ;  while  the  glands  at  the  base  of  the 
mandibles  may  well  be  called,  from  their  discoverer,  Wolff's 
glands.     In  studying  the  digestive  organism  we  are  greatly 

Fig.  60. 


Jaw  of  Worker  showing  Wolff's  gland,  after  Wolff. 
Jlf  Muscles.  /Jaws.  (?  Gland. 

indebted  to  Schiemenz  and  Schonfeld,  who  have  not  only  ex- 
plained by  use  of  beautiful  illustrations  the  detailed  anatomy 
of  the  alimentary  canal,  but  have  been  equally  happy  in 
describing  the  wonderful  physiology  of  digestion  in  bees 
Schonfeld,  from  a  very  elaborate  series  of  experiments,  con- 
cludes that  the  theory  of  Schiemenz  and  v.  Siebold  is  not  cor- 
rect. He  thinks  the  lower  head-glands  secrete  saliva  which 
moistens  the  pollen,  and  aids  in  digesting  it.  The  fact  that  it 
IS  acid  adds  force  to  the  theory.  They  empty  on  the  floor  of 
the  mouth  just  where  they  should  pour  out  the  saliva.  As  the 
queen  and  drones  never  eat  pollen,  but  are  fed  by  the  workers 
they  do  not  need  these  glands.  Schonfeld  thinks  the  larval 
food  IS  digested  pollen,  and  he  claims  to  have  found  this  in  the 
true  stomach  of  nurse-bees.  Partially  digested  pollen  he 
terms  chyme,  which,  just  before  the  drone-larv»  are  to  be 


Fig.  61. 


•3.3a 


OR,  MANUAL  OF   THE  APIARY.  141 

sealed  up,  is  fed  to  them.  The  chyle  and  larval  food  he  finds 
to  contain  blood  corpuscles,  and  he  thinks  them  identical  with 
the  same  in  the  blood  of  the  bee.  Schonfeld  fed  indigestible 
material  like  iron  particles  to  starving  bees  that  had  brood. 
The  chyle,  the  larval  food,  but  not  the  blood  of  the  nurse-bees 
contained  this  iron.  This  food  of  the  larvae  then  must  be  chyle 
and  not  a  secretion.  I  confirmed  this  by  feeding  bees  sugar 
syrup  in  which  I  mixed  finely  pulverized  charcoal.  The  char- 
coal appeared  in  the  royal  jelly  in  the  queen-cells.  As  the 
charcoal  is  utterly  non-osmotic,  it  could  not  pass  to  the  blood, 
and  so  could  not  appear  in  any  secretion,  but  could  and  would 
be  in  any  regurgitated  food.  This  secretion  then  appears  to 
answer  to  the  gastric  juice  in  our  own  digestion.  Again,  the 
fact  that  it  is  acid,  makes  this  conclusion  more  than  war- 
ranted.   This  experiment  certainly  settles  the  matter. 

Again,  these  same  lower  head-glands  are  found  in  some 
insects  that  do  not  feed  their  larvae  at  all,  as  species  of  Eris- 
talis — wasp-colored  two-winged  flies— and  of  Nepa,  a  genus  of 
water-bugs. 

Dr.  Planta  and  others  have  shown  that  the  chyle  fed  to 
queen-larvae  is  not  the  same  as  that  fed  to  drone-larvae,  nor  yet 
like  that  fed  to  worker-larvae.  If  this  is  chyle  the  difference 
could  be  explained,  as  it  would  arise  from  variation  of  food. 
If  a  secretion,  it  could  not  be  easily  explained.  This  view  is 
adopted  by  Mr.  Cowan,  the  ablest  and  most  learned  British 
authority  on  bees.  Bordas  has  found  two  other  pairs  of 
glands  in  both  worker  and  drone  bees,  which  he  terms,  from 
their  position,  the  internal  mandibular  and  sublingual.  It 
would  be  interesting  but  difficult  to  determine  what  secretion, 
if  not  all  the  secretions,  aided  in  kneading  the  wax. 

As  in  our  own  development,  so  in  the  embryo  bee,  the  mid- 
intestine  arises  from  the  endoderm  or  inner  layer  of  the  initial 
animal.  As  the  ectoderm  or  outer  layer  is  around  this,  not 
only  the  mouth  and  vent,  but  the  fore  and  hind  intestine — all 
but  the  true  stomach — arise  by  absorption  at  these  points,  or 
from  invagination  (a  turning  in)  of  the  outer  layer.  Infants 
are  not  infrequently  born  with  an  imperforate  anus.  In  such 
cases  there  is  an  arrest,  the  absorption  does  not  take  place, 
and  the  surgeon's  knife  comes  to  Nature's  relief.    Strangely 


142 


THE  bee-kbepkr's  guide  ; 


enough  in  the  bee — this  is  also  true  of  ants  and  some  wasps — 
this  condition  persists  all  through  the  larval  period.  Thus 
bee-larvae  have  no  anus  or  vent,  and  so  void  no  excreta.  But 
as  known  both  to  Swammerdam  and  Newport,  when  the  last 
larval  skin  is  moulted  the  whole  canal,  with   its  contents,  is 


Section  sJuyudtig  structure  of  Honey-stomachy  Stomach-mouth  and  Stomaeh^ 
after  Schiemenz, 


H  S  Honey-stomach. 

S  Stomach. 

m.  Muscles. 
S  m,  Stomach-mouth. 


H  Epithelial  cells. 
F  Stomach  valve. 
h  Hairs  to  hold  pollen. 


moulted  with  the  skin.  As  already  stated,  the  spinning 
glands  in  the  larva  become  the  thoracic,  or  glands  of  Ramdohr, 
in  the  adult  bee. 

The  oesophagus  or  gullet,  the  fine  thread  which  is  pulled 
out  as  we  behead  a  bee,  passes  from  the  mouth  through  the 
muscular  thorax  (Figs.  25  and  27)  to  the  honey-stomach,  which 
is  situated  in  the  abdomen.  Often,  as  every  bee-keeper  knows, 
this  honey-stomach  (Pig.  36,  /is,  61  hs)  comes  along  with  the 


OR,  MANUAI.   OF   THR   APIARY.  143 

oesophagus  as  we  pull  the  bee's  head  from  the  body.  The 
oesophagus  (Pig.  61,  (£)  is  about  .2  of  an  inch  long  and  .02  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  In  form  and  function  the  oesophagus  is 
not  different  from  the  same  organ  in  other  animals.  It  is 
simply  a  passageway  for  the  food  (Fig.  27,  61  oe). 

The  honey-stomach  (Fig.  62,  k,  s)  or  honey-sac  is  a  sort  of 
a  crop  or  proventriculus.  This  sac  is  oval  about  .1  of  an  inch 
in  diameter.  While  this  organ  is  lined  with  a  cellular  layer 
(Fig.  62,  HS,  E),  the  cells  are  not   large   and   numerous  as  in 

Fig.  63. 


Four  pieces  forming  Stomach- Mouth,  after  Schiemenz. 
c  Cells.         T  m  Transverse  muscles.        Hs  Longitudinal  muscles. 

the  true  stomach  (Fig.  62,  S,  E).  The  muscular  layers  of  this 
sac  are  quite  pronounced  (Fig.  62,  m),  as  we  should  expect,  as 
the  honey  has  to  be  regurgitated  from  it  to  the  honey-cells. 
This  is  truly  a  digestive  chamber,  as  the  nectar — cane-sugar — 
is  here  changed  to  honey — glucose-like  sugar — but  this  is  prob- 
ably through  the  ferment  received  from  the  glands  of  Meckel 
and  Ramdohr,  and  not  from  any  secretion  from  the  organ 
itself.  The  pollen  is  also  very  slightly  digested  here,  as  Schon- 
feld  has  shown,  through  the  action  of  the  saliva  from  the 
glands  of  Siebold,  or  lower  head-glands.  At  the  posterior  end 
of  this  honey-stomach  is  the  stomach-mouth  (Fig.  36,  62,  s,  m, 
and  61,  p)  of  Burmeister,  which  is  admirably  described  by 
Schiemenz.  It  is  really  a  stomach-mouth.  Spherical  in  form, 
.02  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and,  as  Schonfeld  well  says,  re- 
joinds  one  of  a  flower-bud.    It  (Fig.  61  p)  can   be  seen  by  the 


144  THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE: 

unaided  eye,  and  as  Schonfeld  suggests,  is  easily  studied  with 
a  low- power  microscope.  There  are  four  jaw-like  plates  which 
guard  this  stomach-mouth  (Fig.  63),  and  as  Schimenz  shows, 
open  to  let  food  pass  to  the  true  stomach.  This  same  author 
tells  us  how  by  pressing  with  a  needle,  while  viewing  the 
stomach-mouth  under  a  microscope,  we  can  see  the  jaws  open 
and  shut.  These  plates  have  fine  hairs,  pointing  down  (Fig. 
62,  h),  which  would,  if  a  portion  of  the  honey-containing  pollen 
were  taken  by  this  very  muscular  stomach-mouth,  retain  the 
pollen-grains,  while  the  honey  could  be  passed  back  into  the 
honey-stomach.  Hence,  Schiemenz  very  naturally  concludes 
that  this  is  a  sort  of  strainer,  constantly  separating  the  pollen 
and  honey  as  the  bee  is  sipping  nectar  from  flower  to  flower. 

Fig.  64. 


atomach-mouth  in  Honey- Stomach,  after  Cowan. 

A  Normal.  a  (Esophagus.  d  Vales. 

B  Raised  in  regurgitation.         b  Honey-stomach.         e  True  stomach. 

As  will  be  seen,  this  stomach-mouth  has  not  only  great  longi- 
tudinal muscles  (Fig.  62,  m),  but  also  circular  muscles  as  well 
(Fig.  62,  m).  If  Schiemenz  is  correct,  then  this  stomach-mouth 
is  to  separate  the  honey  and  pollen.  Even  with  this  interest- 
ing apparatus,  much  of  our  honey  has  not  a  few  pollen-grains, 
as  every  observing  bee-keeper  knows.  The  fact  that  nectar 
has  much  more  pollen  in  it  than  does  honey,  makes  Schie- 
menz's  view  all  the  more  probable. 

There  is  also  a  long  prolongation  (Fig.  62,  v)  from  the 
stomach-mouth  into  the  true  stomach.  This  is  .04  of  an  inch 
long,  and  is  rich  in   cells,  which   are  held  by  a  very  delicate 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY.  145 

membrane  which  extends  on  still  further.  Schiemenz  believes 
that  this  is  a  valve,  and  certainly  unless  drawn  by  the  strong 
muscles  in  the  walls  out  of  the  stomach  as  Schonfeld  believes, 
it  would  act  as  a  most  efficient  valve.  If  this  does  act  as  a 
perfect  valve,  then  of  course  the  nurse-bees  can  never  feed  the 
larvas  or  queen  any  digested  food  from  the  true  stomach.  This 
is  Schiemenz's  view.  Pastor  Schonfeld,  however,  still  holds, 
and  seems  to  have  proved,  that  while  this  may  serve  as  a 
valve  it  is  under  the  control  of  the  bee,  and  may  be  so  drawn 
up  by  the  very  muscular  honey-stomach  as  to  permit  regurgi- 
tation (Fig.  64).  In  this  regurgitation  of  chyle,  the  stomach- 
mouth  closely  approximates  the  stomach  end  of  the  cesopha- 
gus  (Fig.  64,  B)  ;  and  so  the  chyle  does  not  pass  into  the 
honey-stomach.  This  prolongation  then  is  a  valve  under  the 
control  of  the  bee,  and  is  another  wonderful  structure  in  this 
highly  organized  insect. 

The  true  stomach  (Fig.  61,  c,  s)  is  curved  upon  itself,  and 
is  .4  of  an  inch  long  and  .1  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  is 
rugose,  and  the  circular  wrinkles  or  constrictions  are  quite 
regular.  It  is  richly  covered  within  by  secreting  cells  (Fig. 
62,  s,  c).  The  mucous  membrane  is  folded,  and  hence  there 
are  very  numerous  gastric  cells.  Undoubtedly  the  function  of 
the  gastric  juice  is  the  same  as  in  our  own  stomachs,  it  aids 
to  liquify  or  render  osmotic — capable  of  being  absorbed — the 
albuminous  food,  in  this  case  the  pollen.  This  view  is  con- 
firmed by  the  fact  that  we  almost  always  find  pollen  in  all 
stages  of  digestion  in  the  true  stomach  of  the  bee.  We  may 
not  wonder  at  the  varied  source  of  this  digestive  secretion  ; 
these  gastric  cells,  the  lower  head-glands,  and  possibly  Wolff's 
glands.  Where  among  animals  is  such  thorough  digestive 
work  accomplished  ?  Emptying  into  the  pyloric  or  posterior 
end  of  the  stomach  (Fig.  61,  bt)  are  numerous  tubules,  the 
Malpighian  tubules.  These  are  the  urinary  organs,  and  re- 
move waste  elements  from  the  blood.  They  are  really  the 
bee's  kidneys.  Like  our  own  kidneys,  they  are  nothing  more 
than  tubules  lined  with  excreting  cells.  The  small  intestine 
is  often  called  ileum  (Fig.  61,  li).  This  portion  of  the  diges- 
tive tube  is  lined  with  very  minute,  sharp  chitinous  teeth, 
which  Schiemenz  believes  are  used  to  further  masticate  the 


146  THE  bee-keeper's  GtJIDE  ; 

pollen-grains,  that  have  not  yielded  to  the  digestive  action  of 
the  stomach.  This  opinion  is  sustained  by  the  strongly  mus- 
cular nature  of  the  tube  (Fig.  36,  A).  The  diameter  of  the 
ileum  is  hardly  .02  of  an  inch.  The  rectum,  or  last  portion  of 
the  intestine  (Fig.  61,  It),  is  much  larger  than  the  ileum,  and 
carries  on  its  mucous  or  inner  surface  six  glands  (Fig.  36,  r,g), 
■which  Schiemenz  calls  rectal  glands.  It  is  quite  likely  that 
these  may  be  excretory  in  function.  Their  position  would 
make  this  view  seem  probable  at  the  least.  Minot  claims  that 
these  are  not  glands  nor  absorbant  organs.  Fernald  thinks 
them  valvular,  and  believes  they  restrain  the  injesta. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  it  seems  well  to  remark  that  it 
now  seems  certain  that  the  old  view  of  Dufour,  so  ably  advo- 
cated by  Pastor  Schonfeld  is,  despite  the  arguments  and 
researches  of  Schiemenz,  the  correct  one.  Our  experiments 
with  charcoal  prove  this  absolutely.  The  queen,  drone  and 
larvae  do  not  get  their  food  as  a  secretion — a  sort  of  milk — but 
it  is  rather  the  digested  pollen  modified,  as  the  bees  desire  by 
varying  their  own  food.     In  addition   to  this  albuminous  food 

Fig.  65. 


a  Jaw  of  Drone.  b  Jaw  of  Queen.  c  Jaw  of  Worker. 

(Original.) 

the  queen  and  drones  also  take  much  honey.  Thus  they  need 
the  glands  which  furnish  the  ferment  that  changes  cane  to 
reducible  sugar,  and  they  have  them.  If  all  honey  were  fully 
digested,  then  the  drones  and  queen  would  not  need  any  glands 
at  all.  The  fact  that  the  pollen  that  the  larvae  do  get  is  par- 
tially digested  is  further  proof  that  this  is  chyme,  or  partially 
digested  pollen. 

The  jaws  (Fig.  65,  c)  are  very  strong,  without  the  rudimen- 
tary tooth,  while  the  cutting  edge  is  semi-conical,  so  that  whep 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY.  147 

the  jaws  are  closed  they  form  an  imperfect  cone.  Thus  these 
organs  are  well  formed  to  cut  comb,  knead  wax,  and  perform 
their  various  functions.  As  we  should  expect,  the  muscles  of 
the  jaw  are  very  large  and  powerful  (Fig.  60).  Wolff's  glands 
empty  at  the  base  of  these,  and  are  doubtless  excited  by  their 
action — a  proof  that  their  secretion  is  gastric  in  nature.  The 
worker's  eyes  (Fig.  4)  are  like  those  of  the  queen,  while  their 
wings,  like  those  of  the  drones  (Fig.  46),  attain  the  end  of  the 
body.  These  organs  (Fig.  2),  as  in  all  insects  with  rapid 
flight,  are  slim  and  strong,  and,  by  their  more  or  less  rapid 
vibrations,  give  the  variety  of  tone  which  characterizes  their 
hum.  Thus  we  have  the  rapid  movements  and  high  pitch  of 
anger,  and  the  slow  motion  and  mellow  note  of  content  and  joy. 
Landois  proved  many  years  since,  that  aside  from  the 
noise  made  by  the  wings,  bees  have  a  true  voice.  Thus  he 
showed  that  a  bumble-bee  without  wings,  or  with  wings  glued 
fast,  would  still  hum.  This  voice  is  produced  in  the  spiracles. 
"Who  has  not  noticed  that  a  bumble-bee  imprisoned  closely  in 
a  flower  still  hums  ?  I  have  also  heard  a  carpenter-bee  in  a 
tunnel  hardly  larger  than  its  body,  hum  loudly.  Landois 
found  this  hum  ceased  when  the  spiracles  were  closed  with 
wax.  He  describes  quite  an  intricate  voice-box,  with  a  com- 
plex folded  membrane,  the  tension  of  which  is  controlled 
through  the  action  of  a  mascle  and  tendon.  Thus  we  see  that 
bees  have  a  vocal  organization  not  very  unlike  our  own  in  the 
method  of  its  action.  The  piping  of  the  queen  is  probably  this 
true  voice.  Landois  also  states  that  bees  and  other  insects 
also  make  noise  by  the  movement  of  the  abdominal  segments, 
the  one  on  the  other.  From  the  enormous  muscles  in  the 
thorax  (Fig.  25)  we  should  expect  rapid  flight  in  bees.  Marked 
bees  have  been  known  to  fly  one-half  mile,  unload  and  return 
in  six  minutes,  and  double  that  distance  in  eleven  minutes. 
In  thirty  minutes  they  went  two  and  one-half  miles,  unloaded 
and  returned.  Thus  they  fly  slower  when  foraging  at  a  dis- 
tance. These  experiments  were  tried  by  my  students,  and  the 
time  was  in  the  afternoon.  I  think  they  are  reliable.  Pos- 
sibly, early  in  the  day  the  rapidity  would  be  greater.  Some- 
times swarms  go  so  slowly  that  one  can  keep  up  with  them. 
At  other  times  they  fly  so  rapidly  that  one  needs  a  good  horse 


148  THE  BEE-KBEPER'S  GUIDE*, 

to  follow  them  closely.  Here  the  rate  doubtless  depends  upon 
the  queen. 

The  legs  of  worker-bees  are  very  strangely  modified.  As 
they  are  exceedingly  useful  in  the  bee  economy,  this  is  not 
strange.  We  find  in  the  progressive  development  of  all  ani- 
mals, that  such  organs  as  are  most  used  are  most  modified,  and 
thus  we  see  why  the  legs  and  mouth  organs  of  the  worker-bees 
are  so  wonderfully  developed. 

The  abundant  compound  hairs  on  the  first  joints  of  all  the 
legs  are  very  marked  in  the  worker-bees.  These  are  the  pol- 
len-gathering hairs,  and  from  their  branching,  fluffy  nature 
are  well  suited  to  gather  the  pollen-grains. 

On  the  anterior  legs  the  antenna  cleaner  (Fig.  66)  is  well 
marked,  as  it  is  in  all  Hymenoptera  except  the  lowest  families 
where  it  is  nearly  or  quite  absent.  In  the  honey-bee,  this  is 
found  in  the  queen  and  drone  as  well  as  in  the  worker.  It  is 
situated  at  the  base  of  the  first  tarsus,  and  consists  of  a  nearly 
semi-cylindrical  concavity  (Fig.  66,  c),  armed  on  the  outer  side 
with  from  seventy-eight  to  ninety  projecting  hairs.  These 
teeth-like  hairs  projecting  as  fringe  form  a  very  delicate 
brush.     Extending  from  the  tibia  is  a  blade-like  organ— really 

Fig.  66. 


Antenna-Cleaner  of  Worker-Bee. — Original. 
C  Cavity.  S  Spur. 

the  modified  tibial  spur  (Fig.  66,  5)— which  when  the  leg  is 
bent  at  this  joint,  comes  squarely  over  the  notch  in  the  tarsus. 
Near  the  base  on  the  inside  a  projecting  knob  is  seen  which 
perhaps  acts  as  a  strengthener.     The  part  of  this  blade  or  spur 


OR,  MANUAI.  OF  THE  APIARY.  149 

that  opposes  the  notch  when  in  use  consists  of  a  delicate  mem- 
brane. In  other  Hymenoptera  this  spur  is  greatly  varied. 
Often,  as  in  the  ants  and  mud-wasps,  it  is  also  delicately 
fringed.  Sometimes  it  has  a  long  projecting  point,  and  is 
thickly  set  with  spinous  hairs. 

That  this  organ  is  an   antenna-cleaner  is   quickly  seen  by 
watching  a  bee — preferably  a  bumble-bee — come  from  a  tubu- 
FiG.  67. 


Anterior  Leg  of  Worker- Bee. — Original. 

C  Coxa.  T  Trochanter, 

i*' Femur.  Ti  Tibia. 

123  45  Tarsal  joints  in  order.  CI  Claws. 

lar  flower,  like  that  of  the  malva,  or  by  placing  a  honey-bee, 
bumble-bee  or  wasp  on  the  inside  of  a  window-pane  and  dust- 
ing its  antennae  with  flour  or  pulverized  chalk.  The  insect 
at  once  draws  its  antennae,  one  and  then  the  other,  through 
these  admirable  dusters,  till  the  organs  are  entirely  free  from 
the  dust.  The  bee  in  turn  cleans  its  antenna-cleaners  by 
scraping  them  between  the  inner  brush-like  faces  of  the  basal 
tarsi  of  its  middle  legs,  which  is  done  each  time  after  they  are 
used  to  clean  an  antenna.    The  paper-making  wasps,  and  I 


ISO  THH  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 

presume  all  wasps  clean  these  organs  by  passing  them  between' 
their  jaws,  much  as  a  child  cleans  his  fingers  after  eating 
candy,  except  here  lips  take  the  place  of  jaws.  We  can  hardly 
conceive  of  a  better  arrangement  for  this  purpose,  a  delicate 
brush  and  a  soft  membrane ;  even  better  than  the  housewife 
armed  with  soft  brush  and  a  silk  kerchief,  for  this  antenna 
cleaner  just  fits  the  organs  to  be  dusted.  We  have  seen  the 
important  function  of  the  antennae,  as  most  delicate  touch- 

FiG.  69. 


Tiv  of  Foot  of  Bee.— Original. 

A  Pulvilli  in  use. 

B  Claws  in  use. 

e.c.  Claws.  h.h.  Hairs. 

p.p.  Pulvilli. 

t.t.  Last  joint  of  Tarsus. 


End  of  Middle  Leg  of  Worker-Bee.— Original. 

organs,  and  as  organs  of  smell,  two  senses  of  marvelous  devel- 
opment in  the  bee.  It  is  as  imperative  that  the  bee  keeps  its 
antennae  dust-free  as  that  the  microscopist  keeps  his  glasses 
immaculate.  A  delicate  brush  (Figs.  66  and  67)  on  the  end  of 
the  tibia  opposite  the  spur  and  also  the  brush  of  rather  spinous 
hairs  on  the  tarsus  (Fig.  66)  are  of  use  to  brush  the  hairs,  eyes 
and  face,  as  may  be  seen  by  careful  observation. 

The  claws  and  pulvilli — the  delicate  gland  between  the 
claws— are  well  marked  on  all  the  feet  of  bees.  The  claws 
(Fig.  67,  cl)  are  toothed,  and  are  very  useful  in  walking  up 
wooden  or  other  rough  surfaces  (Fig.  68,  B),  as  they  are  used 
just  as  a  squirrel  uses   its  claws  in   climbing  a  tree.    These 


OR,    MANUAL  OF  ThB   APIARY. 


ISI 


Claws  are  also  used  in  holding:  the  bees  to  some  object  or 
together  while  clustering.  What  a  grip  they  must  have.  It  is 
as  if  we  were  to  grasp  a  limb  or  branch  and  then  hold  hundreds 
yes  thousands,  of  other  persons  as  heavy  as  ourselves  who  had 
m  turn  grasped  hold  of  us.  When  walking  up  a  vertical  wall 
of  glass  or  other  smooth  metal,  the  claws  are  of  no  use,  and  so 
are  turned  back  (Fig.  68,  A),  and  the  pulvilli-glandular 
organs-are  spread  out  and  serve  to  hold  the  bee.  These 
secrete  a  viscid  or  adhesive  substance  which  so  sticks  that  the 
bee  can  even  walk  up  a  window-pane.  This  is  why  bees  soon 
cloud  or  befoul  glass  over  which  they  constantly  walk.  We 
thus  understand  why  a  bee  finds  it  laborious  and  difficult  to 
walk  up  a  moist  or  dust-covered  glass  or  metal  surface. 

The  middle  legs  of  the  worker-bee  are  only  peculiar  in  the 
prominent  tibial  spur  (Fig.  69),  and  the  brushes  or  pollen- 
combs  on  the  inside  of  the  first  tarsus.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  spur  is  useful  in  prying  off  the  pollen-masses  from  the 
postenorlegs,  as  the  bee  enters  the  hive  to  deposit  the  pollen 
in  the  cells.  This  is  doubtless  an  error.  The  queen  and  drone 
have  this  spur  even  longer  than  does  the  worker  ;  the  pollen 
comes  off  easily,  and  needs  no  crow-bar  to  loosen  it.  It  is  com- 
mon among  insects,  and  there  are  often  two.  The  coarse 
projecting  hairs  on  all  the  feet  are  doubtless  the  agents  that 
push  off  the  loads  of  pollen. 

We  have  already  seen  how  the  brushes  or  combs  on  the 
inner  face  of  the  first  tarsus  of  the  middle  legs  serve  to  remove 
the  dust  from  the  antenna  cleaner.  These  also  serve  as  combs, 
like  similar  but  more  perfect  organs  on  the  posterior  legs  to 
xemove  the  pollen  from  the  pollen-hairs,  and  pack  it  in  the 
pollen-baskets  on  the  hind  legs.  Mr.  Root  speaks  of  the 
tongue  as  the  organ  for  collecting  pollen.  Are  not  these  hairs 
really  the  important  agents  in  this  important  work  ? 

But  the  posterior  legs  are  the  most  interesting,  as  it  is 
rare  to  find  organs  more  varied  in  their  uses,  and  so  as  we 
should  expect,  these  are  strangely  modified.  The  branching 
or  pollen-gathering  hairs  (Fig.  71)  are  very  abundant  on  the 
coxa  trochanter  and  femur,  and  not  absent,  though  much  fewer 
(Fig.  70)  on  the  broad  triangular  tibia.  The  basal  tarsus  (Fig 
70)  is  quadurate,  and  it  and  the  tibia  on   the  outside  (Fig.  70) 


152 


THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 

Fig.  70. 


Outxide  of  Tibia  and  Tarsi 

of  Posterior  Leg  of  Worker-Bee, 

showing  Corbieula.— 

Original. 


OR,  MANUAL  OF   THE  APIARY. 

Fig.  71. 


153 


Imide  Posterior  Leg  of  Worker-Bee.- 
Origijial. 


154  THB  BEK-KBEfER'S  GUIDB  J 

are  smooth  and  concave,  especially  on  the  posterior  portlotl, 
which  shallow  cavity  forms  the  corbicula  or  '*  pollen-basket." 
This  is  deepened  by  stiff  marginal  hairs,  which  stand  up  like 
stakes  in  a  sled.  These  spinous  hairs  not  only  hold  the  pollen- 
mass,  as  do  stakes,  but  often  pierce  it,  and  so  bind  the  soft 
pollen  to  the  leg.  Opposite  the  pollen  cavity  of  the  first  tarsus, 
or  on  the  inside  (Fig.  71),  are  about  eleven  rows  of  stiff  hairs. 
They  are  of  golden  color,  and  very  beautiful.  These  may  be 
called  the  pollen-combs,  for  it  is  they  that  gather,  for  the  most 
part,  the  pollen  from  the  pollen-gathering  hairs  of  legs  and 
body,  and  convey  it  to  and  pack  it  in  the  pollen-baskets.  As 
we  have  seen  (Fig.  69),  there  are  less  perfect  combs — similar  in 
character,  position  and  function — on  the  middle  legs.  The 
contiguous  ends  of  the  tibia  and  first  tarsus  or  planta  are  most 
curiously  modified  to  form  the  wax-jaws.  The  back  part  of 
this  joint  (Figs.  70,  71)  reminds  one  of  a  steel  trap  with  teeth, 
or  of  the  jaws  of  an  animal,  the  teeth  in  this  case  consisting 
of  spinous  hairs.  The  teeth  on  the  tibia,  the  pecten  or  comb, 
are  strong  and  prominent.  These  shut  against  the  upper  ear- 
like auricle  of  the  planta,  and  thus  the  function  of  these  wax- 
jaws  is  doubtless  to  grasp  and  remove  the  wax-scales  from  the 
wax-pockets,  and  carry  them  to  the  jaws  of  the  bees.  These 
wax-jaws  are  not  found  in  queens  or  drones,  nor  in  other  than 
wax- producing  bees.  They  are  well  developed  in  Trigona  and 
Melipona,  and  less,  though  plainly  marked,  in  bombus. 
Girard  gives  this  explanation  in  his  admirable  work  Lei 
Abeilles  ;  and  as  he  is  no  plagiarist,  as  he  gives  fullest  credit 
to  others,  he  may  be  the  discoverer  of  these  wax-jaws.  If  he 
is  not,  I  know  not  who  is.  The  genus  Apis  is  peculiar  among 
our  bees,  and  really  exceptional  among  insects  in  having  no 
posterior  tibial  spurs.  They  would,  of  course,  be  in  the  way  of 
action  of  the  wax-jaws.  As  before  stated,  there  are  six  seg- 
ments to  the  abdomen,  in  the  queen  and  worker-bee  (Fig.9),  and 
seven  in  the  male.  Bach  of  these  abdominal  rings  consists  of 
a  dorsal  piece  or  plate — tergite  or  notum  and  pleurites  united — 
which  bears  the  spiracle,  and  which  overlaps  the  ventral  plate 
or  sternite.  These  plates  are  strengthened  with  chitine. 
These  rings  are  connected  with  a  membrane,  so  that  they  can 


OR,  MANUAL  O^  THB  APIARY.  ISS 


push  in  and  out,  something-  as  the   sections  of  a  spy-glass  are 
worked. 

The  ventral  or  sternal   abdominal  plates  of  the   second, 
third,  fourth  and  fifth  segments  of  the  worker  (Fig.  72)  are 

Fig.  72. 


Underside  of  Abdomen  of  Worker-Bee.— Original, 
w  Wax  Scales.  w.w.  Wax  Scales. 

modified  to  form  the  "  wax-pockets;"  though  wax-plate  would 
be  a  more  appropriate  name.  These  wax-plates  (Fig,  73)  are 
smooth,  and  form  the  anterior  portion  of  each  of  these  ventral 
plates.  Each  is  margined  with  a  rim  of  chitine,  which  gives 
it  strength,  and  makes  "  pocket  "  a  more  appropriate  name, 

Fig.  73. 


Original. 
wp  Wax-Plates.  c  A  Compound  Hairs. 

especially  as  the  preceding  segment  shuts  over  these  wax- 
plates.'  The  posterior  portion — less  than  half  the  sternite 
(Fig.  73) — bears  compound  hairs,  and  shuts  over  the  succeed- 


1S6  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

ing  wax-pocket.  These  wax-pockets  are  absent,  of  course,  in 
queen  and  drones. 

Inside  the  wax-plates  are  the  glands  that  secrete  the  wax. 
When  the  wax  leaves  these  glands  it  is  liquid,  and  passes  by 
osmosis  through  the  wax-plate  and  is  molded  on  its  outer  face. 

The  worker-bees  possess  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen  an 
organ  of  defense,  which  they  are  quick  to  use  if  occasion 
demands.  Female  wasps,  the  females  of  the  family  Mutillidae, 
and  worker  and  queen  ants,  also  possess  a  sting.  In  all  other 
Hymenoptera,  like  Chalcid  and  Ichneumon  flies,  gall-flies,  saw- 
flies,  horn-tails,  etc.,  while  there  is  no  sting,  the  females 
have  a  long,  exserted  ovipositor,  which,  in  these  families, 
replaces  the  sting,  and  is  useful,  not  as  an  organ  of  defense, 
but  as  an  auger  or  saw,  to  prepare  for  egg-laying,  or  else,  as  in 
case  of  the  gall-flies,  to  wound  and  poison  the  vegetable  tissue, 
and  thus  by  irritation  to  cause  the  galls. 

This  organ  in  the  worker-bee  is  straight,  and  not  curved  as 
is  the  sting  of  the  queen.  The  poison  which  is  emitted  in 
stinging,  and  which  causes  the  severe  pain,  is  both  an  acid  and 
an  alkaline  liquid,  which  Carlet  shows  are  both  necessary  for 
maximum  results.  These  are  secreted  by  a  double  tubular 
gland  (Fig.  38,  Pg.)  and  stored  in  a  sac  (Fig.  74,  c,  and  38,  Pb.) 
which  is  about  the  size  of  a  flax-seed.  This  sac  is  connected 
by  a  tube  (Fig.  74,  M)  with  the  reservoir  of  the  sting.  The 
sting  is  a  triple  organ  consisting  of  three  sharp  hollow  spears, 
which  are  very  smooth  and  of  exquisite  polish.  If  we  magnify 
the  most  beautifully  wrought  steel  instrument,  it  looks  rough 
and  unfinished  ;  while  the  parts  of  the  sting,  however  highly 
magnified,  are  smooth  and  perfect.  The  true  relation  of  the 
three  parts  of  the  sting  was  accurately  described  by  Mr.  J.  R. 
Bledsoe,  in  the  American  Bee  Journal,  Vol.  VI,  page  29.  The 
action  in  stinging,  and  the  method  of  extruding  the  poison, 
are  well  described  in  a  beautifully  illustrated  article  by  Mr.  J. 
D.  Hyatt,  in  Vol.  I,  No.  1,  of  American  Quarterly  Microscopical 
Journal.  The  larger  of  the  three  awls  (Fig.  74,  A)  usually, 
though  incorrectly,  styled  a  sheath,  has  a  large  cylindrical 
reservoir  at  its  base  (Fig.  74,  5"),  which  is  entirely  shut  off  from 
the  hollow  (Fig.  74,  H)  in  the  more  slender  part  of  the  awl, 
which    latter    serves  no    purpose    whatever,   except  to  give 


OR,  MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY. 


157 


strength  and  lightness.    Three  pairs  of  minute  barbs  (Fig.  74) 

project  like  the  barbs  on  a  fish-hook,  from  the  end  of  this  awl. 

The  reservoir  connects  at  its  base  with   the  poison-sac  and 

below,   by  a  slit,  with   the  opening  (Fig.  74,  N)  made  by  the 

Fig.  74. 


Sting  toith  Lancets  drawn  one  side,  cross-section  of  Sting,  and  a  Lancet, 
much  magnified. — Origi, 


C  Poison  sac.  M  Tube  from  sac  to  S  Reservoir. 

-4  Awl.  reservoir.  E,Ey&lve6. 

U,  V  Barbs.  B,B  Lancets.  iT  Hollow  in  awl. 

/,  /  Hollows  in  lancets.  0,0  Openings  from  hollow  7,  T  Ridges  in  awl. 

2^  Groove  in  lancet.  in  lancets. 


approximation  of  the  three  awls.  The  other  two  awls  (Fig.  74, 
B,  B),  which  we  call  lancets,  are  also  hollow  (Fig.  74,  /,  /). 
They  are  barbed  (Fig.  74,  (/,  U)  much  like  a  fish-hook,  except 


158  THE  bke-kbeper's  guide  ; 

that  there  are  eight  or  ten  barbs  instead  of  one.  Five  of  the 
barbs  are  large  and  strong.  These  barbs  catch  hold  and  cause 
the  extraction  of  the  sting  when  the  organ  is  used.  Near  the 
base  of  each  lancet  is  a  beautiful  valvular  organ  (Fig.  74„  E,  E). 
Mr.  Hyatt  thought  these  acted  like  a  hydraulic  ram,  and  by 
suddenly  stopping  the  current  forced  the  poison  through  the 
hollow  lancets.  It  seems  more  probable  that  the  view  of  Mr. 
T.  G.  Bryant  (Hardwick's  Science  Gossip,  1875)  is  the  more 
correct  one.  He  suggests  that  these  are  really  suction-valves— 
pistons,  so  to  speak — which,  as  the  piston-rods — the  lancets- 
push  out,  suck  the  poison  from  the  sacs.  Carlet  shows  that  the 
poison-sac  is  not  muscular,  so  the  pumping  is  necessary.  The 
hollow  inside  each  lancet  {Fig.  74,  F,  /),  unlike  that  of  the  awl, 
is  useful.  It  opens  anteriorly  in  front  of  the  first  six  barbs 
(Fig.  74,  0,  o),  as  shown  by  Mr.  Hyatt,  and  posteriorly  just 
back  of  the  valves  into  the  central  tube  (Fig.  74,  A''),  and 
through  it  into  the  reservoir  (Fig.  74,  S).  The  poison  then  can 
pass  either  through  the  hollow  lancets  (Fig.  74,  /,  /)  or  through 
the  central  tubes  (Fig.  74,  N),  between  the  three  spears. 

The  lancets  are  held  to  the  central  piece  by  projections 
(Fig.  74,  T,  T)  from  the  latter,  which  fit  into  corresponding 
grooves  (Fig.  74,  T)  of  the  lancets.  In  the  figure  the  lancets 
are  moved  one  side  to  show  the  barbs  and  valves  ;  normally 
they  are  held  close  together,  and  thus  form  the  tube  (Fig. 
74,  N,  Fig.  44,  St.) 

At  the  base  of  the  central  awl  two  flexible  arms  (Fig.  75,  b,b) 
run  out  and  up,  where  they  articulate  with  strong  levers  (Fig.  75, 
D,  D).  The  two  lancets  are  singularly  curved  and  closely 
joined  to  the  flexible  arms  by  the  same  kind  of  dovetailed 
groove  and  projection  already  described.  These  lancets  con- 
nect at  their  ends  (Fig.  75,  c,  c)  with  heavy  triangular  levers 
(Fig.  75,  B,  B),  and  these  in  turn  with  both  Cand  D  at/ and  j. 
All  of  these  levers,  which  also  serve  as  fulcra  (Fig.  75,  B,  C 
and  D),  are  very  broad,  and  so  give  great  space  for  muscular 
attachment  (Fig.  75,  m).  These  muscles,  by  action,  serve  to 
compress  the  poison-sac,  also  cause  the  lever  (Fig.  75,  B)  to 
rotate  about  5  as  a  center,  and  thus  the  whole  sting  is  thrown 
out  something  as  a  knee-joint  works,  and  later  the  lancets  are 
pushed  alternately  further  into  the  wound,  till  stopped  by  the 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF  THB   APIARY. 


159 


valves  striking-  against  the  farther  end  of  the  reservoir,  in  the 
central  awl  (Fig.  74,  S).  As  Hyatt  correctly  states  in  his 
excellent  article,  the  so-called  sheath  first  cuts  or  pierces,  then 
the  lancets  deepen  the  wound.  Beside  the  sting  are  two  feeler- 
like organs  (Fig.  75,  E,  E),  which  doubtless  determine  where 
best  to  insert  the  sting,  though  usually  there  would  seem  little 
time  for  consideration.  Leuckart  discovered  a  second  smaller 
gland  (Fig.  38,  Sg,)  mentioned  also  by  Girard  and  Vogel, 
which  also  has  a  sac  or  reservoir  where  its  secretion  is  stored. 
This  secretion,  as  first  suggested  by  Leuckart,  is  supposed  to 
act  as  a  lubricant  to  keep  the  sting  in  good  condition.  The 
fact  that  muscles  connect  the  various  parts  (Fig.  75)  explains 

Fig.  75. 


Sting  of  Worker-Bee,  modified  from  Hyatt  and  Bryant. 


how  a  sting  may  act,  even  after  the  bee  is  apparently  lifeless, 
or,  what  is  even  more  wonderful,  after  it  has  been  extracted 
from  the  bee.  Dr.  Miller  thinks  a  sting  extracted  months 
before  may  still  act.  The  barbs  hold  one  lancet  as  a  fulcrum 
for  the  other,  and  so  long  as  the  muscles  are  excitable,  so  long- 
is  a  thrust  possible.  Thus  I  have  known  a  bee,  dead  for  hours, 
to  sting.  A  wasp,  dead  more  than  a  day,  with  the  abdomen 
cut  oflF,  made  a  painful  thrust,  and  stings  extracted  for  several 


160  THB  bee-keeper's  guide; 

minutes  could  still  bring  tears  by  their  entering  the  flesh.  In 
stinging,  the  awl  first  pierces,  then  the  lancets  follow.  As  the 
lancets  push  In,  the  valves  force  the  poison  already  crowded 
into  the  reservoir  forward,  close  the  central  tube,  when  the 
poison  is  driven  through  the  lancets  themselves,  and  comes 
out  by  the  openings  near  the  barbs  (Fig.  74,  o,  o).  The  drop 
of  poison  which  we  see  on  the  sting  when  the  bee  is  slightly 
irritated,  as  by  jarring  the  hive  on  a  cold  day,  is  pushed 
through  the  central  opening  by  muscular  contraction  attend- 
ant upon  the  elevation  of  the  abdomen  and  extrusion  of  the 
sting.  The  young  microscopists  will  find  it  diflBcult  to  see  the 
barbs,  especially  of  the  central  awl,  as  it  is  not  easy  to  turn 
the  parts  so  that  they  will  show.  Patience  and  persistence, 
however,  will  bring  success.  Owing  to  the  barbs  the  sting  is 
often  sacrificed  by  use.  As  the  sting  is  pulled  out,  the  body  is 
so  lacerated  that  the  bee  dies.  Sometimes  it  will  live  several 
hours,  and  even  days,  but  the  loss  of  the  sting  is  surely  fatal, 
as  my  students  have  often  shown  by  careful  experiment.  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  say  that  there  is  no  truth  in  the  statement 
that  the  sting  is  used  to  polish  the  comb  ;  nor  do  I  think  there  is 
any  shadow  of  foundation  for  the  statement  that  poison  from 
the  sting  is  dropped  into  the  honey-cells, to  preserve  the  honey. 
The  formic  acid  of  honey  doubtless  comes  from  the  honey- 
stomach,     f^ach  is  an  animal  secretion. 

The  workers  hatch  from  impregnated  eggs,  which  can 
only  come  from  a  queen  that  has  met  a  drone,  and  are  always 
laid  in  the  small,  horizontal  cells  (Fig.  78,  c).  It  is  true  that 
workers  are  very  rarely  reared  in  drone-cells  when  the  rim  is 
constricted.  Mr.  Root  found  that  larger  cells  of  foundation 
were  likewise  narrowed.  These  eggs  are  in  no  wise  different, 
so  far  as  we  can  see,  from  those  which  are  laid  in  the  drone  or 
queen  cells.  All  are  cylindrical  and  slightly  curved  (Fig.  39, 
a,  b),  and  are  fastened  by  one  end  to  the  bottom  of  the  cell,  and 
a  little  to  one  side  of  the  center.  The  eggs  will  not  hatch 
unless  a  little  food  is  added.  Is  this  absorbed,  or  does  it  soften 
the  shell  so  as  to  make  exit  possible  ?  Girard  says  that  the 
Qg%  on  the  first  day  stands  oblique  to  the  bottom  of  the  cell,  is 
more  inclined  the  second  day,  and  is  horizontal  the  third  day. 
As  in  other  animals,  the  eggs  from  different  queens  vary  per- 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THB  APIARY.  161 

ceptibly  in  size.  As  already  shown,  these  are  voluntarily  fer- 
tilized by  the  queen  as  she  extrudes  them,  preparatory  to 
fastening  them  in  the  cells.  These  eggs,  though  small-one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  long-may  be  easily  seen  by  holding  the 
comb  so  that  the  light  will  shine  into  the  cells.  With  experi- 
ence they  are  detected  almost  at  once,  but  I  have  often  found 
It  quite  difficult  to  make  the  novice  see  them,  though  very 
plainly  visible  to  my  experienced  eye. 

The  egg  hatches  in  three  days.     The  larva  (Fig.  39,  d,  e  /) 
incorrectly  called  grub,  maggot-and  even  caterpillar,  by' Hun- 
ter-is white,  footless,  and  lies  coiled  up  in  the  cell  till  near 
maturity.     It  is  fed  a  whitish  fluid,  the  chyle  already  described 
though  this  seems  to  be  given  grudgingly,  as  the  larva  never 
seems  to  have  more   than   it  wishes  to  eat,  so  it  is  fed  quite 
frequently  by  the  mature  workers.     It   would  seem  that  the 
workers  fear  an  excessive  development,  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  is  most  mischievous  and  ruinous,  and  work  to  prevent  the 
same  by  a  mean  and  meager  diet.    Not  only  do  the  worker- 
larvs  receive  the  chyle  grudgingly,  but  just  at  the  last,  before 
the  cell  is  sealed,  a  different  diet  is  given.     There  are  more 
albuminoids  and  fats,  and  less  carbohydrates,  as  shown  by  Dr 
de  Planta.     It  is  probable  that  honey  is  also  given  them,  and 
so  Dufour  was  wholly  right  in   urging  that  digested  food  was 
fed  to  the  larvae,  for  honey  is  digested   nectar.     This  added 
honey  is  what  probably  changes  the  food.     He  was  also  correct 
in  supposing  the  food  of  the  larva  to   be  a  sort  of  chyle.     M 
Quinby,  Doolittle,  and  others,  say  water  is  also  an  element  of 
this  food.     But  bees  often  breed  very  rapidly  when  they  do  not 
leave  the  hive  at  all,  and  so  water,  other  than  that  contained 
m  the  honey,  etc.,  can   not  be  added.     The  time  when  bees 
seem  to  need  water,  and  so  repair  to  the  rill  and  the  pond,  is 
during  the  heat  of  spring  and  summer,  when  they  are  the  most 
busy.     May  this  not  be  quaffed  for  the  most  part  to  slake  their 
own  thirst  ?    If  water  is  carried  to  the  hives  it  is  doubtless 
given  to  the  nurse-bees.     They  may  need  water  when  the 
weather  is  hot  and  brood-rearing  at  its  very  height.    There  is 
no  reason  to  doubt  that  bees,  like  all  other  active  animals,  need 
water  as  they  do  salt,  to  aid  the  physiological  processes.    They 
cool  by  evaporation,  and  need  water  to  promote  the  process. 


162  THB.  beb-keeper's  guide  ; 

When  they  smother,  is  not  the  moisture    about  them  in  part 
the  water  of  respiration  rather  than  exclusive  honey  ? 

At  first  the  larvae  lie  at  the  bottom  of  the  cells,  in  the 
cream-like  "  bee-milk."  Later  they  curl  up,  and,  when  fully 
grown,  are  straight  (Tig.  39,  J).  They  now  turn  head 
down  and  cast  their  skin  and  digestive  canal,  then  turn  with 
their  heads  towards  the  mouth  of  the  cell  (Fig.  39,/).  Before 
this,  however,  the  cell  has  been  capped. 

In  eight  days  (Root  says  nine  or  ten)  from  the  laying  of 
the  egg,  the  worker-cell,  like  the  queen-cell,  is  capped  over  by 
the  worker-bees.  This  cap  is  composed  of  pollen  and  old  wax, 
so  it  is  darker,  more  porous,  and  more  easily  broken  than  the 
caps  of  the  honey-cells  ;  it  is  also  more  convex  (Fig.  39,  k). 
The  larva,  now  full  grown,  having  lapped  up  all  the  food 
placed  before  it,  spins  its  silken  cocoon,  so  excessively  thin 
that  it  requires  a  great  number  to  appreciably  reduce  the 
size  of  the  cell.  The  silken  part  of  the  cocoon  extends 
down  from  the  cap  but  a  short  distance,  but  like  moths  and 
many  other  insects,  the  larval  bee,  just  before  it  pupates, 
spreads  a  thin  glue  or  varnish  over  the  entire  inner  part  of 
the  cell.  These  cocoons,  partly  of  silk  and  partly  of  glue,  are 
well  seen  when  we  reduce  combs  to  wax  with  the  solar  wax- 
extractor.  These  always  remain  in  the  cells  after  the  bees 
escape,  and  give  to  old  comb  its  dark  color  and  great  strength. 
Yet  they  are  so  thin  that  cells  used  even  for  a  dozen  years, 
seem  to  serve  as  well  for  brood  as  when  first  used.  Indeed,  I 
have  good  combs  which  have  been  in  constant  use  nineteen 
years.  As  before  stated,  the  larva  sheds  its  skin,  and  at  the 
last  moults  the  alimentary  canal  or  digestive  tube  with  its  con- 
tents as  well.  These,  as  stated  by  Vogel,  are  pushed  to  the 
bottom  of  the  cell.  In  three  days  the  insect  assumes  the  pupa 
state  (Fig.  39,  g).  In  all  insects  the  spinning  of  the  cocoon 
seems  an  exhaustive  process,  for  so  far  as  I  have  observed, 
and  that  is  quite  at  length,  this  act  is  succeeded  by  a  variable 
period  of  repose.  By  cutting  open  cells  it  is  easy  to  determine 
just  the  date  of  forming  the  cocoon,  and  of  changing  to  the 
pupa  state.  The  pupa  looks  like  the  mature  bee  with  all  its 
appendages  bound  close  about  it,  though  the  color  is  still 
whitish. 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF  THE   APIARY. 


163 


In  twenty^ne  days,  it  may  be  twenty  with  the  best  condi- 
tions, the  bees  emerge  from  the  cells,  ijvery  bee-keeper  should 
hold  xn  memory  these  dates:  Three  days  for  the  egg.  six  for 
the  larva,  and  twelve  days  after  the  larva  is  sealed  over  Of 
course,  there  may  be  slight  variations,  as  the  temperature  of 
the  colony  is  not  always  just  the  same. 

The  old  writers  were  quite  mistaken   in   thinking  that  the 
advent  of  these  was  an  occasion  of  joy  and  excitement  among 
the  bees.     All  apiarists  have  noticed  how  utterly  unmoved  the 
bees  are,  as  they  push  over  and  crowd  by  these  new-comers  in 
the    most    heedless    and     discourteous     manner  imaginable. 
Wildman  tells  of  seeing  the  workers  gathering  pollen   and 
honey  the  same  day  that  they  came  forth  from  the  cells.     This 
Idea  is  quickly  disproved  if  we   Italianize   black   bees      We 
know  that  for  some  days-usually  about   two  weeks  if  the  col- 
ony IS  in  a  normal    condition,  though   if  all  the  bees  are  very 
young  it  may  be  only  one  week-these  young  bees  do  not  leave 
the  hive  at  all,  except  in  case  of  swarming,  when  bees  even  too 
young  to  fly  will  attempt  to  go  with  the  crowd.     However  the 
young  bees  do  fly  out  for  a   sort  of  "  play  spell "  before  ihey 
commence  regularly  to  work  in  the  field.     They  doubtless  wish 
to  try  their  wings.     These  young  bees,  like  young  drones  and 
queens,  are  much  lighter  colored  when  they  first  leave  the  cell 
^       The  worker-bees  never  attain  a  great  age.     Those  reared 
m  autumn  may  live  for  eight  or  nine  months,  and  if  in  queen- 
less  colonies,  where  little  labor  is    performed,  even   longer  • 
while  those  reared  in   spring  will  wear  out  in   three  months' 
and  when  most  busy  will  often  die  in   from  thirty  to  forty-five 
days.    None  of  these  bees  survive  the  year  through,  so   there 
is  a  limit  to  the  number  which  may  exist  in   a  colony      As  a 
good  queen  will  lay,  when  in   her  best  estate,  three  thousand 
eggs  daily,  and  as  the  workers  live  from  one  to  three  months 
It  might  seem  that  forty  thousand  was   too  small  a  figure  for 
the  number  of  workers.     Without  doubt   a   greater  number  is 
possible.    That  it  is  rare  is  not  surprising,  when  we  remember 
the  numerous  accidents  and  vicissitudes  that  must  ever  attend 
the  individuals  of  these  populous  communities. 

The  function  of  the  worker-bees  is  to  do  all  the  manual 
labor  of  the  hives.    They  secrete  the  wax,  which,  as  already 


164  THE  bke-kbeper's  guide; 

stated,  forms  in  small  scales  (Fig.  72,  w)  under  the  over-lap- 
ping rings  under  the  abdomen.  I  have  found  these  wax- 
scales  on  both  old  and  young.  According  to  Fritz  Muller,  the 
admirable  German  observer,  so  long  a  traveler  in  South 
America,  the  bees  of  the  genus  Melipona  secrete  the  wax  on 
the  back. 

The  young  bees  commence  work  in  a  day  from  the  cells. 
They  build  the  comb,  ventilate  the  hive,  feed  the  larvae,  queen 
and  drones,  and  cap  the  cells.  The  older  bees — for,  as  readily 
seen  in  Italianizing,  the  young  bees  do  not  usually  go  forth 
for  the  first  two  weeks— gather  the  honey,  collect  the  pollen, 
or  bee-bread  as  it  is  generally  called,  bring  in  the  propolis  or 
bee-glue,  which  is  used  to  close  openings  and  as  a  cement, 
supply  the  hive  with  water  (?),  defend  the  hive  from  all  im- 
proper intrusion,  destroy  drones  when  their  day  of  grace  is 
past,  kill  and  arrange  for  replacing  worthless  queens,  destroy 
inchoate  queens,  drones,  or  even  workers,  if  circumstances 
demand  it,  and  lead  forth  a  portion  of  the  bees  when  the  con- 
ditions impel  them  to  swarm. 

When  there  are  no  young  bees,  the  old  bees  will  act  as 
housekeepers  and  nurses,  which  they  otherwise  refuse  to  do. 
The  young  bees,  on  the  other  hand,  will  not  go  forth  to  glean, 
at  less  than  six  days  of  age,  even  though  there  are  no  old  bees 
to  do  this  necessary  part  of  bee-duties.  An  indirect  function 
of  all  the  bees  is  to  supply  animal  heat,  as  the  very  life  of  the 
bees  requires  that  the  temperature  inside  the  hive  be  main- 
tained at  a  rate  considerably  above  freezing.  In  the  chemical 
processes  attendant  upon  nutrition,  much  heat  is  generated, 
which,  as  first  shown  by  Newport,  may  be  considerably  aug- 
mented at  the  pleasure  of  the  bees,  by  forced  respiration.  The 
bees,  by  a  rapid  vibration  of  their  wings,  have  the  power  to 
ventilate  their  hives  and  reduce  the  temperature  when  the 
weather  is  hot.  Thus  they  are  able  to  moderate  the  heat  of 
summer,  and  temper  the  cold  of  winter. 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF  THB   APIARY.  165 


CHAPTER  IIL 

SWARMING,  OR  THE  NATURAL  MIJTHODS  OF 

INCREASE. 

The  natural  method  by  which  an  increase  of  colonies 
among-  bees  is  secured,  is  of  great  interest,  and  though  it  has^ 
been  closely  observed,  and  assiduously  studied  for  a  long 
period,  and  has  given  rise  to  theories  as  often  absurd  as  sound, 
yet  even  now  it  is  a  fertile  field  for  investigation,  and  will 
repay  any  who  may  come  with  the  true  spirit  of  inquiry,  for 
there  is  much  concerning  it  which  is  involved  in  mystery. 
Why  do  bees  swarm  at  unseemly  times  ?  Why  is  the  swarm- 
ing spirit  so  excessive  at  times  and  so  restrained  at  other  sea- 
sons ?  These  and  other  questions  we  are  to  apt  to  refer  to 
erratic  tendencies  of  the  bees,  when  there  is  no  question  but 
that  they  follow  naturally  upon  certain  conditions,  perhaps 
intricate  and  obscure,  which  it  is  the  province  of  the  investi- 
gator to  discover.  Who  shall  be  first  to  unfold  the  principles 
which  govern  these,  as  all  other  actions  of  the  bees  ? 

In  the  spring  or  early  summer,  when  the  hive  has  become 
very  populous,  the  queen,  as  if  conscious  that  a  home  could  be 
overci'owded,  and  foreseeing  such  danger,  commences  to  deposit 
drone-eggs  in  drone-cells,  which  the  worker-bees,  perhaps 
moved  by  like  consideration,  begin  to  construct,  if  they  are  not 
already  in  existence.  Drone-comb  is  almost  sure  of  construc- 
tion at  such  times.  In  truth,  if  possible  the  workers  will 
always  build  drone-comb.  No  sooner  is  the  drone-brood  well 
under  way,  than  the  large,  awkward  queen-cells  are  com- 
menced, often  to  the  number  of  ten  or  fifteen,  though  there 
may  be  not  more  than  three  or  four.  The  Cyprian  and  Syrian 
bees  often  start  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  queen-cells.  In 
these,  eggs  are  placed,  and  the  rich  royal  jelly  added,  and 
soon,  often  before  the  cells  are  even  capped,  and  very  rarely 


166  THB  bee-keeper's  GUIDE  *, 

before  a  cell  is  built — Mr.  Doolittle  says  the  first  swarms  of 
the  season  never  leave  until  there  are  capped  cells— if  the  bees 
are  crowded,  the  hives  unshaded,  and  the  ventilation  insuffi- 
cient, some  bright  day,  usually  about  eleven  o'clock,  after  an 
unusual  disquiet  both  inside  and  outside  the  hive,  a  large  part 
of  the  worker-bees— being  off  duty  for  the  day,  and  having 
previously  loaded  their  honey-sacs — rush  forth  from  the  hive 
as  if  alarmed  by  the  cry  of  fire.  Crowded,  unshaded  and  illy 
ventilated  hives  hasten  swarming.  Swarming  rarely  takes 
place  except  on  bright,  pleasant  days,  and  is  most  common 
from  eleven  to  two  o'clock.  The  bees  seem  off  duty  for  the 
day.  They  load  their  honey-stomachs,  and  amid  a  great  com- 
motion inside  the  hive  and  out,  they  push  forth  with  the 
queen,  though  she  is  never  leader,  and  is  frequently  late  in  her 
exit.  Dr.  Miller  once  had  a  swarm  from  a  colony  from  which 
he  had  taken  a  queen  an  hour  before.  Of  course,  the  swarm 
returned  to  the  hive. 

It  is  often  asserted  that  bees  do  no  gathering  on  the  day 
they  swarm,  previous  to  leaving  the  hive.  This  is  not  true. 
Mr.  Doolittle  thinks  they  are  just  as  active  as  on  other  days. 
The  queen,  however,  is  off  duty  for  some  time  before  the  swarm 
leaves.  She  even  lays  scantily  for  two  or  three  days  prior  to 
this  event.  This  makes  the  queen  lighter,  and  prepares  her 
for  her  long,  wearying  flight.  In  her  new  home  she  does  no 
laying  for  several  hours.  The  assertion  that  bees  always 
cluster  on  the  outside  preliminary  to  swarming,  is  not  true. 
The  crowded  hive  makes  this  common,  though  in  a  well-man- 
aged apiary  it  is  very  infrequent.  The  bees,  once  started  on 
their  quest  for  a  new  home,  after  many  gyrations  about  the 
old  one,  dart  forth  to  alight  upon  some  bush  (Fig.  76),  limb,  or 
fence,  though  in  one  case  I  knew  the  first  swarm  of  bees  to 
leave  at  once  for  parts  unknown,  without  even  waiting  to 
cluster.  After  thus  meditating  for  the  space  of  from  one  to 
three  hours,  upon  a  future  course,  they  again  take  wing  and 
leave  for  their  new  home,  which  they  have  probably  already 
sought  out,  and  fixed  up.. 

Some  suppose  the  bees  look  up  a  home  before  leaving  the 
hive,  while  others  claim  that  scouts  are  in  search  of  one  while 
the  bees  are  clustered.     The  fact  that  bees  take  a  right-line  to 


Fig.  76. 


Jlu'inij  a  Sicuiiii. — Ftuin  JJcjAtrtnunt  uf  Ayrkutdirt.', 


168  THE  bee-kebpkr's  guide  ; 

their  new  home,  and  fly  too  rapidly  to  look  as  they  go,  would 
argue  that  a  home  is  pre-empted,  at  least,  before  the  cluster  is 
dissolved.  The  fact  that  the  cluster  remains  sometimes  for 
hours — even  over  night — and  at  other  times  for  a  brief  period, 
hardly  more  than  fifteen  minutes,  would  lead  us  to  infer  that 
the  bees  cluster  while  waiting  for  a  new  home  to-  be  found. 
Yet,  why  do  bees  sometimes  alight  after  flying  a  longdistance, 
as  did  a  first  swarm  one  season  upon  our  College  grounds  ? 
Was  their  journey  long,  so  that  they  must  needs  stop  to  rest, 
or  were  they  flying  at  random,  not  knowing  whither  they  were 
going?  This  matter  is  no  longer  a  matter  of  question.  I  now 
know  of  several  cases  where  bees  have  been  seen  to  clean  out 
their  new  home  the  day  previous  to  swarming.  In  each  case 
the  swarm  came  and  took  possession  of  the  new  home  the  day 
after  the  house-cleaning.  The  reason  of  clustering  is  no  doubt 
to  give  the  queen  a  rest  before  her  long  flight.  Her  muscles 
of  flight  are  all  "soft,"  as  the  horsemen  would  say.  She 
must  find  this  a  severe  ordeal,  even  after  the  rest. 

If  for  any  reason  the  queen  should  fail  to  join  the  bees, 
and  rarely  when  she  is  among  them,  possibly  because  she  finds 
she  is  unfit  for  the  journey,  they  will,  after  having  clustered, 
return  to  their  old  home.  They  may  unite  with  another  swarm, 
and  enter  another  hive.  Many  writers  speak  of  clustering  as 
rare  unless  the  queen  is  with  the  swarm.  A  large  experience 
convinces  me  that  the  reverse  is  quite  the  case. 

The  youngest  bees  will  remain  in  the  old  hive,  to  which 
those  bees  which  are  abroad  in  quest  of  stores  will  return. 
Most  of  these,  however,  may  be  in  time  to  join  the  emigrants. 

The  presence  of  young  bees  on  the  ground  immediately 
after  a  swarm  has  issued — those  with  flight  too  feeble  to  join 
the  rovers — will  often  mark  the  previous  home  of  the  swarm. 
Mr.  Doolittle  confines  a  teacupful,  or  less,  of  the  bees  when  he 
hives  the  swarm,  and  after  the  colony  is  hived  he  throws  the 
confined  bees  up  in  the  air,  when  he  says  they  will  at  once  go 
to  the  hive  from  which  the  swarm  issued. 

Soon,  in  seven  days,  often  later  if  Italians — Mr.  E.  E. 
Hasty  says  in  from  six  to  seventeen  days — the  first  queen  will 
come  forth  from  her  cell,  and  in  two  or  three  days  she  will,  or 
may,  lead  a  new  swarm  forth  ;  but  before  she  does  this,  the 
peculiar  note,  known  as  the  piping  of  the  queen,  may  be  heard. 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THB  APIARY.  169 

This  piping  sounds  like  "  peep,"  "peep,"  is  shrill  and  clear, 
and  can  be  plainly  heard  by  placing  the  ear  to  the  hive,  nor 
would  it  be  mistaken.  This  sound  is  Landois'  true  voice,  as  It 
IS  made  even  in  the  cell,  and  also  by  a  queen  whose  wings  are 
cut  off.  Cheshire  thinks  this  sound  is  made  by  friction  of  the 
segments,  one  upon  the  other,  as  the  queen  moves  them.  The 
newly  hatched  queen  pipes  in  seven  or  eight  hours  after  com- 
ing from  the  cell.  She  always  pipes  if  a  swarm  is  to  issue, 
and  if  she  pipes  a  second  swarm  will  go  unless  weather  or  man 
interferes.  The  second  swarm  usually  goes  in  from  thirty-five 
to  forty-five  hours  after  the  piping  is  heard.  This  piping  of 
the  liberated  queen  is  followed  by  a  lower,  hoarser  note,  made 
by  a  queen  still  within  the  cell.  The  queen  outside  makes  a 
long:er  note  followed  by  several  shorter  ones  ;  the  enclosed 
queens  repeat  tones  of  equal  length.  This  piping  is  best  heard 
by  placing  the  ear  to  the  hive  in  the  evening  or  early  morning. 
If  heard,  we  may  surely  expect  a  swarm  the  next  day  but  one 
following,  unless  the  weather  be  too  unpleasant. 

Some  have  supposed  that  the  cry  of  the  liberated  queen 
was  that  of  hate,  while  that  by  the  queen  still  imprisoned  was 
either  enmity  or  fear.  Never  will  an  after-swarm  leave,  unless 
preceded  by  this  peculiar  note.  Queens  occasionally  pipe  at 
other  times,  even  in  a  cage.  This  is  probably  a  note  of  alarm, 
as  the  attendant  bees  are  always  aroused  by  it. 

At  successive  periods  of  one  or  two  days,  though  the  third 
swarm  usually  goes  two  days  after  the  second,  one,  two,  or 
even  three  more  swarms  may  issue  from  the  old  home.  Mr. 
Langstroth  knew  five  after-swarms  to  issue,  and  others  have 
reported  eight  and  ten.  The  cells  are  usually  guarded  by  the 
workers  in  ^11  such  cases  against  the  destruction  of  the  queen. 
These  last  sw:.rms,  all  after  the  first,  will  each  be  heralded  by 
the  piping  of  the  queen.  They  will  be  less  particular  as  to  the 
time  of  day  when  they  issue,  as  they  have  been  known  to  leave 
before  sunrise,  and  even  after  sunset.  The  well-known  api- 
arist, Mr.  A.  F.  Moon,  once  knew  a  second  swarm  to  issue  by 
moonlight.  They  will,  as  a  rule,  cluster  further  from  the  hive. 
The  after-swarms  are  accompanied  by  the  queen,  and  in  case 
swarming  is  delayed,  may  be  attended  by  a  plurality  of  queens. 
I  have  counted  five  queens  in  a  second  swarm.     Berlepsch  and 


170  THE  bee-keeper's  guide  ; 

Langstroth  each  saw  eight  queens  issue  with  a  swarm,  while 
others  report  even  more.  Mr.  Doolittle  says  the  guards  leave 
the  cells  when  the  queen  goes  out,  and  then  other  queens, 
which  have  been  fed  for  days  in  the  cells,  rush  out  and  go  with 
the  swarm.  He  says  he  had  known  twenty  to  go  with  third 
swarms.  I  have  seen  several  young  queens  liberated  in  a 
colony.  How  does  Mr.  Doolittle  explain  that  ?  Mr.  Root 
thinks  that  a  plurality  of  queens  only  attends  the  last  after- 
swarm,  when  the  bees  decide  to  swarm  no  more.  These  virgin 
queens  fly  very  rapidly,  so  the  swarm  will  seem  more  active 
and  definite  in  its  course  than  will  first  swarms,  and  are  quite 
likely  to  cluster  high  up  if  tall  trees  are  near  by.  When  the 
swarming  is  delayed  it  is  likely  that  the  queens  are  often  fed 
by  the  workers  while  yet  imprisoned  in  the  cells.  The  view  is 
generally  held  that  these  queens  are  kept  in  the  cells  that  the 
queen  which  has  already  come  from  the  cell  may  not  kill  them. 

The  cutting  short  of  swartping  preparations  before  the  sec- 
ond, third,  or  even  the  first  swarm  issues,  is  by  no  means  a 
rare  occurrence.  This  is  effected  by  the  bees  destroying  the 
queen-cells,  and  sometimes  by  a  general  extermination  of  the 
drones,  and  is  generally  to  be  explained  by  a  cessation  of  the 
honey-yield.  Cells  thus  destroyed  are  easily  recognized,  as 
they  are  torn  open  from  the  side  (Fig.  45,  E)  and  not  cut  back 
from  the  end.  It  is  commonly  observed  that  while  a  moderate 
yield  of  honey  is  very  provocative  of  swarming,  a  heavy  flow 
seems  frequently  to  absorb  the  entire  attention  of  the  bees, 
and  so  destroy  the  swarming  impulse  entirely. 

Swarming-out  at  other  times,  especially  in  late  winter  and 
spring,  is  sometimes  noticed  by  apiarists.  This  is  doubtless 
due  to  famine,  mice,  ants,  or  some  other  disturbing  circum- 
stance which  makes  the  hive  intolerable  to  the  bees.  In  such 
cases  the  swarm  is  quite  likely  to  join  with  some  other  colony 
of  the  apiary. 


OR,    MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  171 


CHAPTER  IV, 

PRODUCTS   OF   BEES;   THEIR  ORIGIN   AND 
FUNCTION. 

Among'  all  insects,  bees  stand  first  in  the  variety  of  the 
useful  products  which  they  give  us,  and,  next  to  the  silk-moths, 
in  the  importance  of  these  products.  They  seem  the  more 
remarkable  and  important  in  that  so  few  insects  yield  articles 
of  commercial  value.  True,  the  cochineal  insect,  a  species  of 
bark-louse,  gives  us  an  important  coloring  material ;  the  lac 
insect,  of  the  same  family,  gives  us  the  important  element  of 
our  best  glue — shellac ;  another  scale  insect  forms  the  Chi- 
nese wax  of  commerce ;  the  blister-beetles  afford  an  article 
prized  by  the  physician,  while  we  are  indebted  to  one  of  the 
gall-flies  for  a  valuable  element  of  ink ;  but  the  honey-bee 
affords  not  only  a  delicious  article  of  food,  but  also  another 
article  of  no  mean  commercial  rank,  namely,  wax.  We  will 
proceed  to  examine  the  various  products  which  come  from  bees. 

HONBY. 

Of  course,  the  first  product  of  bees,  not  only  to  attract 
attention,  but  also  in  importance,  is  honey.  And  what  is 
honey  ?  It  is  digested  nectar,  a  sweet,  neutral  substance 
gathered  from  the  flowers.  This  nectar  contains  much  water, 
though  the  amount  is  very  variable,  a  mixture  of  several  kinds 
of  sugar  and  a  small  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter  in  the 
form  of  pollen.  Nectar  is  peculiar  in  the  large  amount  of 
sucrose  or  cane-sugar  which  it  contains.  Often  there  is  nearly 
or  quite  as  much  of  this  as  of  all  the  other  sugars.  We  can 
not,  therefore,  give  the  composition  of  honey.  It  will  be  as 
various  as  the  flowers  from  which  it  is  gathered.  Again,  the 
thoroughness  of  the  digestion  will  affect  the  composition  of 
honey.  This  digestion  is  doubtless  accomplished  through  the 
aid  of  the  saliva — that  from  the  racemose  glands  of  the  head 
and  thorax  (Fig.  59,  Ihg,  Ig,  and  Fig.  60). 


172  THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 

The  composition  of  honey  is  of  course  very  varied.  Thus 
analyses  give  water  all  the  way  from  15  to  30  percent.  The 
first  would  be  fully  ripe,  the  last  hardly  the  product  we  should 
like  to  market. 

The  reducing  sugars — so  called  because  they  can  reduce  the 
sulphate  of  copper  when  made  strongly  alkaline  by  the  addition 
of  caustic  potash  or  soda — include  all  vegetable  sugars  but 
sucrose  of  cane-sugar;  and  consist  mainly  of  dextrose,  which 
turns  the  ray  of  polarization  to  the  right,  and  levulose,  which 
turns  the  ray  to  the  left.  Dextrose  and  levulose  are  both  pro- 
ducts of  various  fruits,  as  well  as  honey.  Dextrose  and  leva- 
lose  are  also  called  invert  sugars  ;  because,  when  cane-sugar  is 
heated  with  a  mineral  acid,  like  hydrochloric  acid,  it  changes 
from  cane-sugar,  which  revolves  the  polarized  ray  to  the  right, 
to  dextrose  and  levulose  ;  but  the  latter  is  most  effective,  so 
now  the  ray  turns  to  the  left,  hence  the  terms  inversion,  or 
invert  sugar.  Glucose  is  a  term  which  refers  to  both  dextrose 
and  levulose,  and  is  synonymous  with  grape-sugar. 

The  amount  of  reducing  sugars  varies  largely,  as  shown 
by  numerous  analyses,  usually  from  65  to  75  percent ;  though 
a  few  analyses  of  what  it  would  seem  must  have  been  pure 
honeys,  have  shown  less  than  60  percent.  But  in  such  cases 
there  was  an  excess  of  cane-sugar.  It  seems  not  improbable 
that  in  such  cases  honey  was  gathered  very  rapidly,  and  the 
bees  not  having  far  to  fly  did  not  fully  digest  the  cane-sugar 
of  the  nectar.  Dr.  J.  Campbell  Brown,  in  a  paper  before  the 
British  Association,  gave  as  an  average  of  several  analyses 
73  percent  of  invert  or  reducing  sugars  ;  36  and  45-100  percent 
was  levulose,  and  36  and  57-100  percent  was  dextrose.  Almost 
always  pure  honey  gives  a  left  rotation  of  from  two  to  twelve 
degrees.  This  wide  variation  is  suggestive.  Does  it  not  show 
that  very  likely  the  honey  from  certain  flowers,  though  pure 
honey,  may  give  a  right-handed  rotation  with  a  large  angle 
because  of  a  large  amount  of  dextrose  and  little  levulose?  It 
occurs  to  me  that  these  two  uncertain  factors,  incomplete 
digestion  and  the  possible  variation  in  nectar,  make  determi- 
nation by  the  analyst  either  by  use  of  the  polariscope  or  chemi- 
cal reagents  a  matter  of  doubt.  I  speak  with  more  confidence, 
as  our  National  Chemist    pronounced  several  specimens  of 


OR,   MANUAL  OF   THE  APIARY.  173 

Tf hat  I  feel  sure  were  pure  honey,  to  be  probably  adulterated. 
I  think  that  now  he  has  perfected  his  methods  so  that  such 
mistakes  would  rarely  occur. 

While  nearly  or  quite  half  of  the  nectar  of  flowers  is  cane- 
sugar,  there  is  very  little  of  such  sugar  in  honey.  While  from 
one  to  three  percent  is  most  common  it  not  infrequently  runs 
to  five  or  six  percent,  and  occasionally  to  twelve  or  sixteen  per- 
cent. Quite  likely  in  this  last  case,  imperfect  digestion  was 
the  cause.  The  nectar  was  not  long  enough  in  the  stomach  to 
be  changed  ;  or  else  for  some  reason  there  was  too  little  of  the 
digestive  ferment  present.  Of  course,  twelve  to  fifteen  percent 
of  sucrose  would  almost  surely  rotate  the  plane  to  the  right. 
There  is  a  very  interesting  field  for  study  here.  What  flowers 
yield  nectar  so  rich  in  cane-sugar  that  even  the  honey  is  rich 
in  the  same  element  ?  Honey  often  contains,  we  are  told,  as 
much  as  four  percent  of  dextrine.  This,  of  course,  tends  to 
make  it  rotate  the  ray  to  the  right,  and  further  complicates 
the  matter.  Again,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  in  case  flowers 
secrete  nectar  in  large  quantities  the  bees  would  load  quickly, 
and  so  proportionately  less  saliva  would  be  mixed  with  it,  and 
digestion  would  be  less  thorough. 

We  see  now  why  drones  and  queens  need  salivary  glands 
to  yield  the  ferment  to  digest  honey.  Often  the  worker-bees 
do  not  thoroughly  digest  it.  We  see,  too,  why  honey  is  such 
an  excellent  food.  We  have  to  digest  all  our  cane-sugar.  The 
honey  we  eat  has  been  largely  digested  for  us. 

Albuminoids — evidently  from  the  pollen — vary  from  five 
to  seventy-five  hundredths  of  one  percent.  These  vary  largely 
according  to  the  flowers.  It  is  quite  likely  that  in  case  of 
bloom  like  basswood  where  the  honey  comes  very  rapidly — 
fifteen  pounds  per  day  sometimes  for  each  colony — the  stomach- 
mouth  can  not  remove  all  the  pollen.  Here  is  an  opportunity 
for  close  observation.  If  we  know  we  have  honey  that  was 
gathered  very  rapidly,  we  should  have  a  test  made  for  albumi- 
nous material  to  ^ee  if  its  quantity  increases  with  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  honey  is  gathered.  While  there  may  be  quite 
an  amount  of  this  pollen  in  honey,  usually  there  will  be  but 
little. 

Besides  the  above  substances,  there  is  a  little  mineral  mat- 


174  THB  bee-keeper's   GUIDE  ; 

ter — fifteen  hundredths  of  one  percent — which  I  suppose  to  be 
mainly  malate  of  lime  ;  a  little  of  the  essential  oils  which  pos- 
sibly give  the  characteristic  flavor  of  the  difiFerent  kinds  of 
honey,  and  more  or  less  coloring  matter,  more  in  buckwheat 
honey,  less  in  basswood.  There  is  also  a  little  acid — formic 
acid — which  probably  aids  to  digest  the  nectar,  and  possibly 
with  the  saliva,  may,  like  the  acid  gastric  juice  of  our  own 
stomachs,  resist  putrefaction,  or  any  kind  of  fermentation.  It 
has  been  urged  that  this  is  added  to  the  honey  by  the  bees 
dropping  poison  from  the  sting.  I  much  doubt  this  theory.  It 
is  more  reasonable,  however,  than  the  absurd  view  that  the 
bee  uses  its  sting  to  polish  its  cells.  If  the  poison-glands  can 
secrete  formic  acid,  why  can  not  the  glands  of  the  stomach  ? 
Analogy,  no  less  than  common  sense,  favors  this  view.  The 
acid  of  honey  is  often  recognizable  to  the  taste,  as  every  lover 
of  honey  knows.  The  acid  is  also  shown  by  use  of  blue  litmus. 
The  specific  gravity  ^varies  greatly  of  course,  as  we  should 
expect  from  the  great  variation  in  the  amount  of  water.  I 
have  found  very  thick  honey  to  have  a  specific  gravity  of  1.40 
to  1  50.  The  fact  that  honey  is  digested  nectar  or  sucrose, 
shows  that  in  eating  honey  our  food  is  partially  digested  for 
us,  the  cane-sugar  is  changed  to  a  sugar  that  can  be  readily 
absorbed  and  assimilated. 

I  have  fed  bees  pure  cane-sugar,  and,  when  stored,  the 
late  Prof.  R.  F.  Kedzie  found  that  nearly  all  of  this  sugar  was 
transformed  in  much  the  same  way  that  the  nectar  is  changed 
which  is  taken  from  the  flowers. 

It  is  probable  that  the  large  compound  racemose  glands 
in  the  head  and  thorax  of  the  bees  (Fig.  59,  Ihg,  Ig,  and  Fig. 
61)  secrete  an  abundant  ferment  which  hastens  these  transfor- 
mations which  the  sugars  undergo  while  in  the  honey-stomach 
of  the  bee.  I  once  fed  several  pounds  of  cane-sugar  syrup  at 
night  to  the  bees.  I  extracted  some  of  this  the  next  morning, 
and  more  after  it  was  capped.  Both  samples  were  analyzed  by 
three  able  chemists— Profs.  Kedzie,  Scovell,  and  Wiley— and 
the  sample  from  the  capped  honey  was  found  to  be  much  bet- 
ter digested.  This  shows  that  the  digestion  continues  in  the 
comb.     Much  of  the  water  escapes  after  the  honey  is  stored. 

The  method  of  collecting  honey  has  already  been  described. 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THB  APIARY.  175 

The  principles  of  lapping:  and  suction  are  both  involved  in  the 
operation. 

When  the  stomach  is  full  the  bee  repairs  to  the  hive  and 
regurgitates  its  precious  load,  either  giving  it  to  the  bees  or 
storing  it  in  the  cells.  This  honey  remains  for  some  time 
uncapped  that  it  may  ripen,  In  which  process  the  water  is 
partially  evaporated,  and  the  honey  rendered  thicker.  If  the 
honey  remains  uncapped,  or  is  removed  from  the  cells,  it  will 
generally  granulate,  if  the  temperature  be  reduced  below  70 
degrees.  Like  many  other  substances,  most  honey,  if  heated 
and  sealed  while  hot,  will  not  crystallize  till  it  is  unsealed.  In 
case  of  granulation  the  sucrose  and  glucose  crystallize  in  the 
mellose.  Some  honey,  as  that  from  the  South,  and  some  from 
California,  seems  to  remain  liquid  indefinitely.  Some  kinds 
of  our  own  honey  crystallize  much  more  readily  than  others. 
I  have  frequently  observed  that  thick,  ripe  honey  granulates 
more  slowly  than  thin  honey.  The  only  sure  (?)  test  of  the 
purity  of  honey,  if  there  be  any,  is  that  of  the  polariscope. 
This,  even  if  decisive,  is  not  practical  except  in  the  hands  of 
the  scientist.  The  most  practical  test  is  that  of  granulation, 
though  this  is  not  wholly  reliable.  Granulated  honey  is  almost 
certainly  pure.  Occasionally  genuine  honey,  and  of  superior 
excellence,  refuses,  even  in  a  zero  atmosphere,  to  crystallize. 

When  there  are  no  flowers,  or  when  the  flowers  yield  no 
sweets,  the  bees,  ever  desirous  to  add  to  their  stores,  frequently 
essay  to  rob  other  colonies,  and  often  visit  the  refuse  of  cider- 
mills,  or  suck  up  the  oozing  sweets  of  various  plant  or  bark 
lice,  thus  adding,  may  be,  unwholesome  food  to  their  usually 
delicious  and  refined  stores.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  queen 
never  lays  her  maximum  number  of  eggs  except  when  storing 
is  going  on.  In  fact,  in  the  interims  of  honey-gathering,  egg- 
laying  not  infrequently  ceases  altogether.  The  queen  seems 
discreet,  gauging  the  size  of  her  family  by  the  probable  means 
of  support.  Or  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  workers  control 
affairs  by  withholding  the  chyle,  and  thus  the  queen  stops  per- 
force. Syrian  bees  are  much  more  likely  to  continue  brood- 
rearing  when  no  honey  is  being  collected  than  are  either  Ger- 
man or  Italian  bees. 

Again,  in  times  of  extraordinary  yields  of  honey  the  stor* 


176  THB  BEE-KBBPER'S  GUIDE; 

ing-  is  very  rapid,  and  the  hive  becomes  so  filled  that  the  queen 
is  unable  to  lay  her  full  quota  of  eggs ;  in  fact,  I  have  seen  the 
brood  very  much  reduced  in  this  way,  which,  of  course,  greatly 
depletes  the  colony.  This  might  be  called  ruinous  prosperity. 
The  natural  use  of  the  honey  is  to  furnish,  in  part,  the 
drones  and  imago  worker-bees  with  food,  and  also  to  supply, 
in  part  at  least,  the  queen,  especially  when  she  is  not  laying. 


The  product  of  the  bees  second  in  importance  is  wax.  The 
older  scientists  thought  this  was  a  product  formed  from  pollen. 
Girard  says  it  was  discovered  by  a  peasant  of  Lusace.  Lang- 
stroth  states  that  Herman  C.  Hornbostel  discovered  the  true 
source  of  wax  in  1745.  Thorley  in  1774,  and  Wildman  in  1778, 
understood  the  true  source  of  wax.  This  is  a  solid,  unctuous 
substance,  and  is,  as  shown  by  its  chemical  composition,  a  fat- 
like material,  though  not,  as  some  authors  assert,  the  fat  of 
bees.  This  is  lighter  than  water,  as  its  specific  gravity  is  .965. 
The  melting  point  is  never  less  than  144  degrees  F.  Thus,  it 
is  easy  to  detect  adulteration,  as  mineral  wax,  both  parafl&ne 
and  ceresin,  have  a  less  specific  gravity.  Paraffine  also  has  a 
much  lower  melting  point.  It  is  impossible  to  adulterate  wax 
with  these  mineral  products  for  use  as  foundation.  They  so 
destroy  the  ductility  and  tenacity  that  the  combs  are  almost 
sure  to  break  down.  Ceresin  might  be  used,  but  it  is  distaste- 
ful to  the  bees,  and  foundation  made  from  wax  in  which 
ceresin  is  mixed  would  have  no  value.  Only  pure  beeswax  is 
used  in  manufacturing  foundation  in  the  United  States.  I 
have  this  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  A.  I.  Root,  whose  dictum  in 
such  matters  is  conclusive. 

As  already  observed,  wax  is  a  secretion  from  the  glands 
just  within  the  wax-plates,  and  is  formed  in  scales,  the  shape 
of  an  irregular  pentagon  (Fig.  72,  w)  underneath  the  abdomen. 
These  scales  are  light-colored,  very  thin  and  fragile,  and  are 
secreted  by  the  wax-gland  as  a  liquid,  which  passes  through 
the  wax-plate  by  osmosis,  and  solidifies  as  thin  wax-scales  on 
the  outside  of  the  plates  opposite  the  glands.  Neighbour 
speaks  of  wax  oozing  through  pores  from  the  stomach.  This 
is  not  the  case,  but,  like  the  synovial  fluid  about  our  own 


OR,   MANUAL   OF  THE   APIARY.  177 

joints,  it  is  formed  by  the  secreting  membrane,  and  does  not 
pass  through  holes,  as  water  through  a  sieve.     There  are,  as 
already  stated,  four  of  these  wax-pockets  on  each  side  (Fig.  72), 
and  thus  there  may  be  eight  wax-scales  on  a  bee  at  a  time! 
This  wax  can  be  secreted  by  the  bees  when  fed  on  pure  sugar,' 
as  shown  by  Huber,  whose    experiment  I  have  verified.     I 
removed  all  honey  and  comb  from  a  strong  colony,  left  the 
bees  for  twenty-four  hours  to  digest  all  food  which  might  be 
in  their  stomachs,  and  then  fed  pure  sugar,  which  was  better 
than  honey,  as  Prof.  R.  F.  Kedzie  has  shown  by  analysis  that 
not  only  filtered  honey,  but  even  the  nectar  which  he  collected 
right  from  the  flowers  themselves,  contains  nitrogen.     The 
bees  commenced  at  once  to  build  comb,  and  continued  for  sev- 
eral days,  so  long  as  I  kept  them   confined.     This  is  as  we 
should  suppose  ;  sugar  contains  hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  pro- 
portion to  form   water,  while  the  third   element,  carbon,  is  in 
the  same,  or  about  the  same,  proportion  as  the  oxygen.     Now, 
the  fats  usually  contain  little  oxygen  and  a  good  deal  of  car- 
bon and  hydrogen.    Thus  the  sugar,  by  losing  some  of  its 
oxygen,  would  contain  the  requisite  elements  for  fat.     It  was 
found  true  in  the  days  of  slavery  in  the  South  that  the  negroes 
of  I^ouisiana,  during  the  gathering  of  the  cane,  would  become 
very  fat.    They  ate  much  sugar  ;  they  gained  much  fat.   Now, 
wax  is  a  fat-like  substance,  not  that  it  is  the  animal  fat  of 
bees,  as  often  asserted— in  fact,  it  contains  much  less  hydro- 
gen, as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  formula  from  Hess  : 
Oxyg-en >j 


Carbon 


SO 
.79.30 


Hydrogen '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.13.20 

—but  it  is  a  special  secretion  for  a  special  purpose,  and  from 
its  composition  we  should  conclude  that  it  might  be  secreted 
from  a  purely  saccharine  diet,  and  experiment  confirms  the 
conclusion.  Dr.  Planta  has  found  that  there  is  a  trace  of 
nitrogen  in  wax-scales,  a  little  less  than  .6  of  one  percent, 
while  he  finds  in  newly  made  comb,  nearly  .9  of  one  percent! 
It  has  been  found  that  bees  require  about  twenty  pounds  of 
honey  to  secrete  one  of  wax.  The  experiments  of  Mr.  P.  I^. 
Viallon  show  this  estimate  of  Huber  to  be  too  great.  Berlepsch 
says  sixteen  to  nineteen  pounds  when   fed  on  sugar  without 


178  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

pollen,  and  ten  pounds  when  fed  both.  My  own  experiments 
would  sustain  Ruber's  statement.  In  these  experiments  the 
bees  are  confined,  and  so  the  conclusions  are  to  be  received 
with  caution.  We  can  not  know  how  much  the  results  are 
changed  by  the  abnormal  condition  in  which  the  bees  are 
placed. 

For  a  time  nitrogenous  food  is  not  necessary  to  the  secre- 
tion of  wax.  Probably  the  small  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the 
scales  and  in  the  saliva  may  be  furnished  by  the  blood.  This, 
of  course,  could  not  continue  long  ;  indeed,  the  general  nutri- 
tion would  be  interfered  with,  and  ill  health  can  never  do 
maximum  work. 

It  is  asserted  that  to  secrete  wax,  bees  need  to  hang  in 
compact  clusters  or  festoons  in  absolute  repose.  Such  quiet 
would  certainly  seem  conducive  to  most  active  secretion.  The 
food  could  not  go  to  form  wax,  and  at  the  same  time  supply 
the  waste  of  tissue  which  ever  follows  upon  muscular  activity. 
The  cow,  put  to  hard  toil,  could  not  give  so  much  milk.  But  I 
find,  upon  examination,  that  the  bees,  even  the  oldest  ones, 
while  gathering  in  the  honey  season,  yield  up  the  wax-scales 
the  same  as  those  within  the  hive.  During  the  active  storing 
of  the  past  season,  especially  when  comb-building  was  in 
rapid  progress,  I  found  that  nearly  every  bee  taken  from  the 
flowers  contained  the  wax-scales  of  varying  sizes  in  the  wax- 
pockets.  By  the  activity  of  the  bees,  these  are  not  infre- 
quently loosened  from  their  position  and  fall  to  the  bottom  of 
the  hive,  sometimes  in  astonishing  quantities.  This  explains 
why  wax  is  often  mentioned  as  an  element  of  honey.  Its  pres- 
ence, however,  in  honey  is  wholly  accidental.  It  is  probable 
that  wax-secretion  is  not  forced  upon  the  bees,  but  only  takes 
place  as  required.  So  the  bees,  unless  wax  is  demanded,  may 
perform  other  duties.  When  we  fill  the  sections  and  brood- 
chamber  wholly  with  foundation,  it  is  often  difficult  to  find 
any  bees  bearing  wax-scales.  In  such  cases  I  have  often 
looked  long,  but  in  vain,  to  find  such  scales  in  situ  to  show  to 
my  students.  A  newly-hived  colony,  with  no  combs  or  foun- 
dation, will  show  these  wax-scales  on  nearly  every  bee. 
Whether  this  secretion  is  a  matter  of  the  bee's  will,  or  whether 
it    is    excited     by   the    surrounding     conditions  without  any 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  179 

thought,  are  questions  yet  to  be  settled.  No  comb  necessitates 
quiet.  With  us  and  all  other  higher  animals,  quiet  and  heavy 
food-taking  favors  fat  deposits.  May  not  the  same  in  bees 
conduce  to  wax-production  ? 

These  wax-scales  are  loosened  by  the  wax-jaws  of  the  pos- 
terior legs,  carried  to  their  anterior  claws,  which  in  turn  bear 
them  to  the  mouth,  where  they  are  mixed  with  saliva  probably 
from  Wolff's  glands  (Fig.  60),  or  mixed  saliva. 

After  the  proper  kneading  by  the  jaws,  these  wax-scales  are 
fashioned  into  that  wonderful  and  exquisite  structure,  the  comb. 
In  this  transformation  to  comb,  the  wax  may  become  colored. 
This  is  due  to  a  slight  admixture  of  pollen  or  old  wax.  It  is 
almost  sure  to  be  colored  if  the  new  comb  is  formed  adjacent 
to  old,  dark-colored  comb.  In  such  cases  chippings  from  the 
old  soiled  comb  are  used. 

Honey-comb  is  wonderfully  delicate,  the  base  of  a  new  cell 
being,  according  to  Prof.  C.  P.  Gillette,  in  worker-comb,  be- 
tween .0032  and  .0064  of  an  inch,  and  the  drone  between  .0048 
and  .008.  The  walls  are  even  thinner,  varying,  he  says,  from 
.0018  to  .0028  of  an  inch.  The  cells  are  so  formed  as  to  com- 
bine the  greatest  strength  and  maximum  capacity  with  the 
least  expense  of  material.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  queen- 
cells  are  much  thicker,  and  contain,  as  before  stated,  much 
that  is  not  wax.  In  the  arch-like  pits  in  queen-cells,  we 
farther  see  how  strength  is  conserved  and  material  economized. 
Honey-comb  has  been  an  object  of  admiration  since  the 
•earliest  time.  Some  claim  that  the  form  is  a  matter  of  neces- 
sity—the result  of  pressure  or  reciprocal  resistance  and  not  of 
bee-skill.  The  fact  that  the  hexagonal  form  is  sometimes 
assumed  just  as  the  cell  is  started,  when  pressure  or  resistance 
could  not  aid,  has  led  me  to  doubt  this  view ;  especially  as 
wasps  form  their  paper  nests  of  soft  pulp,  and  the  hexagonal 
cells  extend  to  the  edge,  where  no  pressure  or  resistance  could 
affect  the  form  of  the  cells.  Yet  I  am  not  certain  that  the 
mutual  resistance  of  the  cells,  as  they  are  fashioned  from  the 
soft  wax,  may  not  determine  the  form.  Mullenhoff  seems  to 
have  proved  that  mutual  resistance  of  the  cells  causes  the 
hexagonal  form.  The  bees  certainly  carve  out  the  triangular 
pyramid  at  the  base.    They  would  need  to  be  no  better  geome- 


180  THE  BBK-KBKPER  S  GUIDB  ; 

tricians  to  form  the  hexagonal  cells.  The  assertion  that  the 
cells  of  honey-comb  are  absolutely  uniform  and  perfect  is 
untrue,  as  a  little  inspection  will  convince  any  one.  The  late 
Prof.  J.  Wyman  demonstrated  that  an  exact  hexagonal  cell 
does  not  exist.  He  also  showed  that  the  size  varies,  so  that  in 
a  distance  of  ten  worker-cells  there  may  be  a  variation  of  one 
cell  in  diameter,  and  this  in  natural,  not  distorted,  cells.  Any 
one  who  doubts  can  easily  prove,  by  a  little  careful  examina- 
tion, that  Prof.  Wyman  was  correct.  This  variation  of  one- 
fifth  of  an  inch  in  ten  cells  is  extreme,  but  variation  of  one- 

Fig  77. 


Irregular  Cells,  (rnodified)  from  Cowan. 

tenth  of  an  inch  is  common.  The  sides,  as  also  the  angles, 
are  not  constant.  The  rhombic  faces  forming  the  bases  of  the 
cells  also  vary.  The  idea  which  has  come  down  from  the  past 
that  mathematics  and  measurement  exactly  agreed  upon  the 
angles  of  the  rhombs,  that  the  two  opposite  obtuse  angles  were 
each  109°  28'  16"  and  the  acute  70°  31'  and  44"  is  without  foun- 
dation in  fact.  Mr.  Cowan  figures  (Fig.  77)  triangular,  quad- 
rangular, and  even  cells  with  seven  sides.  Of  course,  such 
deformity  is  very  rare. 


OR,   MANUAl,  OF  THE  APIARY. 


181 


The  bees  change  from  worker  (Fig.  78,  c)  to  drone  cells 
(Fig.  78,  a),  which  are  one-fifth  larger,  and  vice  versa,  not  by 
any  system  (Fig.  78,  d),  but  simply  by  enlarging  or  contract- 
ing.   It  usually  takes  about  four  rows  to  complete  the  transfor- 

FiG.  78. 


JRhombs,  Pyramidal  Banes 
and  cross-secHoTis  of  cells, 
—Illustrated. 


HoTuy-Conib. — Oi-iginal,  after  Duncan. 


a  Drone-cells. 
h  Deformed  cells. 


c  Worker-cells. 
dd  Queen-cells. 


mation,  though  the  number  of  deformed  cells  varies  from  two, 
very  rarely  one,  to  eight.  The  perfect  drone-cells  may  be, 
often  are,  contiguous  to  perfect  worker-cells,  the  irregular  cells 
being  used  to  fill  out  the  necessary  irregularities.     An  EngUsh 


182  THE  bee-kkeper's  guide; 

writer  criticises  Langstroth's  representation  of  these  irregular 
cells,  and  adds  that  the  angles  can  never  be  less  than  100 
degrees.  This  is  far  from  the  truth,  as  I  have  found  many 
cells  where  an  angle  was  considerably  less  than  this.  Mr. 
Cowan,  in  his  excellent  "  Honey-Bee,"  describes  and  figures 
cells  where  the  angle  is  even  acute. 

The  structure  of  each  cell  is  quite  complex,  yet  full  of 
interest.  The  base  is  a  triangular  pyramid  (Fig.  78,  e],  whose 
three  faces  are  rhombs  (Mr.  Cowan  has  found  and  photo- 
graphed cells  with  four  faces),  and  whose  apex  forms  the  very 
center  of  the  floor  of  the  cell.  From  the  six  free  or  non- 
adjacent  edges  of  the  three  rhombs  extend  the  lateral  walls  or 
faces  of  the  cell.  The  apex  of  this  basal  pyramid  is  a 
point  where  the  contiguous  faces  of  the  three  cells  ot>  the 
opposite  side  meet,  and  form  the  angles  of  the  bases  of  three 
cells  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  comb.  Thus  the  base  of  each 
cell  forms  one-third  of  the  base  of  three  opposite  cells.  One 
side  thus  braces  the  other,  and  adds  much  to  the  strength  of 
the  comb.  Each  cell,  then,  is  in  the  form  of  a  hexagonal 
prism,  terminating  in  a  flattened  triangular  pyramid. 

The  bees  usually  build  several  combs  at  once,  and  carry 
forward  several  cells  on  each  side  of  each  comb,  constantly 
adding  to  the  number,  by  additions  to  the  edge.  The  bees,  in 
constructing  comb,  make  the  base  or  so-called  mid-rib,  the 
"fish-bone  "  in  honey  where  foundation  is  used,  thick  at  first, 
and  thin  this  as  they  add  to  the  cells  in  lengthening  them. 
Prof.  C.  P.  Gillette  demonstrated  this  by  coloring  foundation 
black.  The  color  reached  nearly  to  the  end  of  the  cell,  and 
extended  an  inch  below  the  foundation.  Thus  we  understand 
why  bees  take  so  kindly  to  foundation.  To  work  this  out  is 
not  contrary  to  their  instincts,  and  gives  them  a  lift.  Huber 
first  observed  the  process  of  comb-building,  noticing  the  bees 
abstract  the  wax-scales,  carry  them  to  the  mouth,  add  the 
frothy  saliva,  and  then  knead  and  draw  out  the  yellow  ribbons 
which  were  fastened  to  the  top  of  the  hive,  or  added  to  the 
comb  already  commenced. 

The  diameter  of  the  worker-cells  (Fig.  78,  c)  averages  little 
more  than  one-fifth  of  an  inch — Reaumur  says  two  and  three- 
fifths  lines,  or  twelfths  of  an  inch— while  the  drone-cells  (Fig. 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF   THB   APIARY.  I83 

78,  a)  afe  a  little  more  than  one-fourth  of  an  inch,  or,  according 
to  Reaumur,  three  and  one-third  lines.  But  this  distinguished 
author  was  quite  wrong  when  he  said:  "These  are  the  in- 
variable dimensions  of  all  cells  that  ever  were  or  ever  will  be 
made."  A  recent  English  author,  after  stating  the  diameter 
of  cells,  adds:  "The  statement  many  times  made  that 
twenty-five  and  sixteen  of  these,  respectively,  cover  a  square 
inch,  is  erroneous,  as  they  are  not  square."  He  says  there  are 
28  13-15  and  18  178-375.  I  find  the  worker-cells  per  square 
inch  vary  from  25  to  29,  and  the  drone-cells  from  16  to  19  per 
square  inch.  The  drone-cells,  I  think,  vary  more  in  size  than 
do  the  worker-cells.  The  depth  of  the  worker-cells  is  a  little 
less  than  half  an  inch  ;  the  drone-cells  are  slightly  extended, 
so  as  to  be  a  little  more  than  half  an  inch  deep.  Thus  worker- 
comb  is  seven-eighths  and  drone-comb  one  and  one-fourth 
inches  thick.  This  depth,  even  of  brood-cells,  varies,  so  we 
can  not  give  exact  figures.  The  cells  are  often  drawn  out  so 
as  to  be  an  inch  long,  when  used  solely  as  honey  receptacles. 
Such  cells  are  often  very  irregular  at  the  end,  and  sometimes 
two  are  joined.  The  number  of  cells  in  a  pound  of  comb  will 
vary  much,  of  course,  as  the  thickness  of  the  comb  is  not  uni- 
form. This  number  will  vary  from  thirty  to  fifty  thousand. 
In  capping  the  honey  the  bees  commence  at  the  outside  of 
each  cell  and  finish  at  the  center.  The  capping  of  the  brood- 
cells  is  white  and  convex.  The  capping  of  honey-cells  is 
made  thicker  by  black  bees  than  by  the  other  races,  and  so 
their  comb  honey  is  more  beautiful.  Another  reason  for  the 
whiter  color  comes  from  a  small  air-chamber  just  beneath  the 
capping.  The  inner  surface  of  the  capping  is,  therefore, 
usually  free  from  honey.  This  chamber  is  usually  a  little 
larger  in  the  honey-comb  of  black  bees.  The  cappings  are 
strengthened  by  tiny  braces  of  wax,  which,  as  we  should 
expect,  are  most  pronounced  in  drone-comb. 

The  strength  of  comb  is  something  marvelous.  I  have 
known  a  frame  of  comb  honey  eleven  inches  square  to  weigh 
eleven  pounds,  and  yet  to  be  unsupported  at  the  bottom,  and 
for  not  more  than  one-third  of  the  distance  from  the  top  on  the 
sides,  and  yet  it  held  securely.  The  danger  in  cold  weather, 
from  breaking,  is  greater,  as  then  the  comb  is  very  brittle. 


184  THE  bee-keeper"s  guide  ; 

Prof.  Gillette  has  found  that  comb  one  inch  thick  will  weigh 
only  from  one-twentieth  to  one  twenty-fifth  the  weight  of  the 
honey  which  it  may  hold. 

The  character  of  the  cells,  as  to  size,  that  is,  whether  they 
are  drone  or  worker,  seems  to  be  determined  by  the  relative 
abundance  of  bees  and  honey.  If  the  bees  are  abundant  and 
honey  needed,  or  if  there  is  no  queen  to  lay  eggs,  drone-comb 
(Fig.  78,  a)  is  invariably  built,  while  if  there  are  few  bees,  and 
of  course  little  honey   needed,  then    worker-comb  (Fig.  78,  c)  is 

Fig.  79. 


Eoney-Comb  Coral.— Original. 

almost  invariably  formed.  It  is  also  a  curious  fact  that  if  the 
queen  keeps  along  with  the  comb-builders  in  the  brood-cham- 
ber, then  no  drone-comb  is  built ;  but  let  her  fail  to  keep  cells 
occupied,  and  drone-comb  is  at  once  formed.  It  would  seem 
that  the  workers  reasoned  thus  :  We  are  going  to  have  comb 
for  storing,  for  such  we  better  fashion  the  large  celled  or 
drone-comb. 

All  comb,  when  first  formed,  is  clear  and  translucent.  The 
fact  that  it  is  often  dark  and  opaque  implies  that  it  has  been 
long  used  as  brood-comb,  and  the  opacity  is  due  to  the  innu- 
merable thin  glue-like  cocoons  which  line  the  cells.    This  may 


OR,  MANUAL  OF  THE   APIARY. 


185 


be  separated  by  dissolving  the  wax  ;  which  may  be  done  by 
putting-  it  in  boiling  alcohol,  or,  better  still,  by  use  of  the  solar 
wax-extractor.  Such  comb  need  not  be  discarded,  for  if  com- 
posed of  worker-cells  it  is  still  very  valuable  for  breeding  pur- 
poses, and  should  not  be  destroyed  till  the  cells  are  too  small 
for  long  service,  which  will  not  occur  till  after  many  years  of 
use.    The  function,  then,  of  the  wax,  is  to  make  comb  and 


Fig. 


Botiey-Comb  Coral. —Original. 

caps  for  the  honey-cells,  and,  combined   with  pollen,  to  form 
queen-cells  (Fig.  78,  d)  and  caps  for  the  brood-cells. 

A  very  common  fossil  found  in  many  parts  of  the  Eastern 
and  Northern  United  States  is,  from  its  appearance,  often 
called  petrified  honey-comb.  We  have  many  such  specimens 
in  our  museum.  In  some  cases  the  cells  are  hardly  larger 
than  a  pin-head  ;  in  others  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
These  (Figs.  79,  80)  are  not  fossil  honey-comb  as  many  are  led 
to  believe,  though  the  resemblance  is  so  striking  that  no  won- 


186  tHB  BKB-KESPER'g  GUlf)B  ; 

der  the  public  f^enerally  are  deceived.  These  specimens  are 
fossil  coral,  which  the  paleontologist  places  in  the  genus 
Favosites ;  favosus  being  a  common  species  in  the  Northern 
United  States.  They  are  very  abundant  in  the  lime  rock  in 
northern  Michigan,  and  are  very  properly  denominated  honey- 
comb coral.  The  animals  of  which  these  were  once  the  skele- 
tons, so  to  speak,  are  not  insects  at  all,  though  often  called  so 
by  men  of  considerable  information. 

The  species  of  the  genus  Favosites  first  appeared  in  the 
Upper  Silurian  rocks,  culminated  in  the  Devonian,  and  dis- 
appeared in  the  early  Carboniferous.  No  insects  appeared  till 
the  Devonian  age,  and  no  Hymenoptera — bees,  wasps,  etc.— 
till  after  the  Carboniferous.  So  the  old-time  Favositid  reared 
its  limestone  columns  and  helped  to  build  islands  and  conti- 
nents untold  ages — millions  upon  millions  of  years — before  any 
flower  bloomed,  or  any  bee  sipped  the  precious  nectar.  In 
some  specimens  of  this  honey-comb  coral  (Fig.  80)  there  are  to 
be  seen  banks  of  cells,  much  resembling  the  paper-nests  of 
some  of  our  wasps.  This  might  be  called  wasp-comb  coral, 
except  that  both  styles  were  wrought  by  the  self-same  animals. 

POLLEN  OR  BEE-BREAD. 

An  ancient  Greek  author  states  that  in  Hymettus  the  bees 
tied  little  pebbles  to  their  legs  to  hold  them  down.  This  fan- 
ciful conjecture  probably  arose  from  seeing  the  pollen-balls  on 
the  bees*  legs. 

Even  such  scientists  as  Reaumur,  Bonnet,  Swammerdam, 
and  many  apiarists  of  the  last  century,  thought  they  saw  in 
these  pollen-balls  the  source  of  wax.  But  Huber,  John  Hunter, 
Duchet,  Wildman,  and  others  already  referred  to,  noticed  the 
presence  and  function  of  the  wax-scales  already  described,  and 
were  aware  that  the  pollen  served  a  different  purpose. 

This  substance,  like  nectar,  is  not  secreted  nor  manufac- 
tured by  the  bees,  only  collected.  The  pollen-grains  form  the 
male  element  in  plants.  They  are  in  plants  what  the  sperma- 
tozoa or  sperm-cells  are  in  animals  ;  and  as  the  sperm-cells  are 
much  more  numerous  than  the  eggs  or  germ-cells,  so  pollen- 
grains  are  far  more  numerous  in  plants  than  are  the  ovules  or 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF  THE   APIARY. 


187 


seeds.  In  Chinese  wistaria,  IVisiaria  sinensis,  there  are,  says 
Goodale,  about  7,000  pollen-grains  to  each  ovule.  The  color  of 
pollen  is  usually  yellow  ;  but  we  often  find  it  orange,  reddish, 
nearly  white,  and  in  several  Gilias  in  California  it  is  bright 
blue.  Pollen-grains  are  really  single  ceUs,  and  have  two 
coats  ;  the  outer  is  the  extine,  which  may  be  smooth,  variously 
sculptured,  or  even  thickly  set  with  spines  (Fig.  81).  These 
spines,  as  also  the  color,  often  enable  us  to  tell  the  species  of 
plant  from  which  the  pollen  came.     Usually  the  extine  is  per- 

FiG.  81. 


Pollen-Orains,  from  A.  I.  Root  Co. 


forated,  though  the  inner  wall — intine — is  not.  These  perfora- 
tions are  also  definite  in  number  within  the  species.  These 
holes  give  opportunity  for  the  pollen-tubes  (Fig.  252,  T)  to  push 
out  after  the  pollen-grain  reaches  the  stigma  of  the  flower. 
"Where  there  are  no  perforations  of  the  extine,  the  wall  breaks. 
In  some  cases  like  orchids,  pollen-grains  are  held  together  by 
an  adhesive  substance.  In  our  milkweeds  we  notice  a  similar 
grouping  of  pollen-grains  (Fig.  227)  which  often  are  very  dis- 
turbing to  bees  and  other  insects. 

The  composition  of  pollen,  says  G-oodale,  is  protoplasmic 


188  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

matter,  granular  food  materials,  such   as  starch  and  oil  and 
dissolved  food  matters,  sugar  and  dextrine. 

Dr.  A.  de  Planta  gives  the  following  analysis  of  pollen  of 
the  hazel  (B.  B.  Journal,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  269).  He  finds  proto- 
plasm, oils  and  starch — the  important  food  elements. 

Before  drying  he  found  : 

Water 9.19 

Nitrogen 4.81 

Ash 3.81 

After  drying  thoroughly  he  found  : 

Nitrogenous  Matter 31.63 

Non-nitrogenous 64.36 

Ash 4.01 

He  found  no  reducing  sugar,  but  did  find  14.70  percent  of 
cane-sugar. 

As  will  be  seen,  pollen,  like  our  grains,  is  rich  in  the 
albuminoids.  Like  our  grains,  or  even  different  specimens  of 
the  same  grain,  the  composition  of  pollen  will  doubtless  vary 
to  quite  an  extent.  As  we  note  that  pollen  contains  besides  an 
ash,  albuminoids,  sugar,  starch,  and  oils,  we  understand  its 
excellence  as  a  food  ;  it  contains  within  itself  all  the  impor- 
tant food  elements.  The  bees  usually  obtain  it  from  the 
stamens  of  flowers  ;  but  if  they  gain  access  to  flour  when  there 
is  no  bloom,  they  will  take  this  in  lieu  of  pollen,  in  which  case 
the  former  term  used  above  becomes  a  misnomer,  though 
usually  the  bee-bread  consists  wholly  of  pollen.  I  have  also 
known  bees  to  gather  extensively  for  bee-bread  from  the  com- 
mon raspberry  rust.  Very  likely  the  spores  of  others  of  these 
fungi  or  low  vegetables  help  to  supply  this  nutritious  sub- 
stance. Occasionally  there  is  a  drouth  of  bee-bread  alike  in 
hive  and  flowers,  then  bees  will  seek  this  kind  of  food  In  meal 
or  flour  box  or  bin.  Hence,  the  wisdom  of  feeding  rye-flour 
which  the  bees  will  readily  take  if  it  is  needed.  Flour  may  be 
added  to  candy  and  fed  to  bees. 

As  already  intimated,  the  pollen  Is  conveyed  In  the  pollen- 
baskets  (Fig.  70)  of  the  posterior  legs,  to  which  it  is  conveyed 
by  the  other  legs,  as  already  described,  page  154,  and  com- 
pressed into  little  oval  masses.  The  motions  in  this  convey- 
ance are  exceedingly  rapid,  and  are  largely  performed  while 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF,  THB  APIARY.  189 

the  bee  is  on  the  wing.  The  bees  not  infrequently  come  to 
the  hives  not  only  with  replete  pollen-baskets,  but  with  their 
whole  under-surface  thoroughly  dusted.  Dissection  will  also 
show  that  the  same  bee  may  have  her  sucking  stomach  dis- 
tended with  honey,  though  this  is  rare.  Thus  the  bees  make 
the  most  of  their  opportunities.  It  is  a  curious  fact,  noticed 
even  by  Aristotle,  that  the  bees,  during  any  trip,  almost 
always  gather  only  a  single  kind  of  pollen,  or  gather  only 
from  one  species  of  bloom.  Hence,  while  different  bees  may 
have  different  colors  of  pollen,  the  pellets  of  bee-bread  on  any 
single  bee  will  be  uniform  in  color  throughout.  It  is  possible 
that  the  material  is  more  easily  collected  and  compacted  when 
homogeneous.  It  seems  more  probable  that  they  prefer  the 
pollen  of  certain  plants,  and  work  on  such  species  so  long  as 
they  yield  the  desired  food,  though  it  may  be  a  matter  of  sim- 
ple convenience.  From  this  fact  we  see  why  bees  cause  no 
intercrossing  of  species  of  plants;  they  only  intermix  the 
pollen  of  different  plants  of  the  same  species. 

The  pollen  is  usually  deposited  in  the  small  or  worker 
cells,  and  is  unloaded  by  a  scraping  motion  of  the  posterior 
legs,  the  pollen-baskets  being  first  lowered  into  the  cells.  The 
bee  thus  freed,  leaves  the  wheat-like  masses  to  be  packed  by 
other  bees,  which  is  packed  by  pushing  with  the  head.  The 
cells,  which  may  or  may  not  have  the  same  color  of  pollen 
throughout,  are  never  filled  quite  to  the  top,  and  not  infre- 
quently the  same  cell  may  contain  both  pollen  and  honey. 
Such  a  condition  is  easily  ascertained  by  holding  the  comb 
between  the  eye  and  the  sun.  If  there  is  no  pollen  it  will  be 
wholly  translucent ;  otherwise  there  will  be  opaque  patches. 
A  little  experience  will  make  this  determination  easy,  even  if 
the  comb  is  old.  Combs  in  small  sections,  especially  if  sep- 
arators are  used,  are  not  likely  to  receive  pollen  or  be  used  for 
breeding.  It  is  often  stated  that  queenless  colonies  gather  no 
pollen,  but  it  is  not  true,  though  they  gather  less  than  they 
otherwise  would.  It  is  probable  that  pollen,  at  least  when 
honey  is  added,  contains  all  the  essential  elements  of  animal 
food.  It  certainly  contains  the  very  important  principle 
which  is  not  found  In  pure  nectar  or  honey— nitrogenous 
material.    I  do    not   think  the    bee-moth  larva  will  destroy 


190  THE  BKE-KEEPKR  S  GUIDE  ; 

combs  that  are  entirely  destitute  of  pollen,  surely  not  unless 
they  have  been  long  used  as  brood-combs.  The  intruder  must 
have  proteid  food. 

The  function  of  bee-bread  is  to  furnish  albuminous  food 
to  all  the  bees,  adults  no  less  than  larvae.  As  already  stated, 
brood-rearing  is  impossible  without  it.  And  though  it  is  cer- 
tainly not  essential  to  the  nourishment  of  the  adult  bees  when 
in  repose,  it  still  may  be  so,  and  unquestionably  is,  in  time  of 
active  labor.  This  point  is  clearly  proved  from  the  fact  that 
pollen-husks  are  almost  always  found  in  the  intestines  of  bees. 
We  may  say  it  feeds  the  tissues  of  the  imago  bees,  and  is 
necessary  that  the  workers  may  form  the  food  for  the  queen, 
drones  and  larv^.  Schonfeld  thinks  the  bees  must  have  it  in 
winter,  and  in  case  no  bee-bread  is  in  the  combs,  he  thinks  the 
bees  scrape  it  from  the  cells  and  old  combs.  I  believe  bees 
often  winter  better  when  there  is  no  pollen  in  the  hive. 

PROPOLIS  OR   BEE-GLUE. 

This  substance,  also  called  bee-glue,  is  collected  as  the 
bees  collect  pollen,  and  is  not  made  or  secreted.  It  is  the  pro- 
duct of  various  resinous  buds,  and  may  be  seen  to  glisten  on 
the  opening  buds  of  the  hickory  and  horse-chestnut,  where  it 
frequently  serves  the  entomologist  by  capturing  small  insects. 
From  such  sources,  from  the  oozing  gum  of  various  trees, 
from  varnished  furniture,  and  from  old  propolis  about  unused 
hives  that  have  previously  seen  service,  do  the  bees  secure 
their  glue.  Probably  the  gathering  of  bees  about  cofl&ns  to 
collect  the  glue  from  the  varnish,  led  to  the  custom  of  rap- 
ping on  the  hives  to  inform  the  bees,  in  case  of  a  death  in  the 
family,  that  they  might  join  as  mourners.  This  custom  still 
prevails,  as  I  understand,  in  some  parts  of  the  South.  Propolis 
has  great  adhesive  force,  and  though  soft  and  pliable  when 
warm  becomes  very  hard  and  unyielding  when  cold. 

The  use  of  bee-glue  is  to  cement  the  combs  to  their  sup- 
ports, to  fill  up  all  rough  places  inside  the  hive,  to  seal  up  all 
crevices  except  the  place  of  exit,  which  the  bees  often  contract 
by  aid  of  propolis,  and  even  to  cover  any  foreign  substance 
that  can  not  be  removed.  Intruding  snails  have  thus  been 
imprisoned  inside  the  hive.  Reaumur  found  a  snail  thus  in- 
cased ;  Maraldi  a  slug  similarly  entombed ;  while  I  have  myself 


OK,   MANUAI,  OP  THB  APIARY.  191 

observed  a  Bombus,  which  had  been  stripped  by  the  bees  of 
wings,  hair,  etc.,  in  their  vain  attempts  at  removal,  also  en- 
cased in  this  unique  style  of  a  sarcophagus,  fashioned  by 
the  bees.  Alcohol,  benzine,  gasoline,  ether,  and  chloroform  are 
all  ready  solvents  of  bee-glue,  and  will  quickly  remove  it  from 
the  hands,  clothing,  etc.  Boiling  in  water  with  concentrated 
lye  will  remove  propolis  completely.  Even  steam  and  hot 
water  used  as  a  spray  have  been  found  to  do  the  same. 

PARTIAI,  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

For  very  full  lists  of  books,  etc.,  see  Packard's  Text-Book 
of  Entomology. 

Alley,  Henry— Thirty  Years  Among  the  Bees,  1880,  and  Oueen- 

Rearing,  1883.  ^ 

Adair,  D.  L.— Annals  of  Bee-Keeping,  1872. 
Amans,  Dr. — Essai  sur  le  vol  des  Insectes,  1883. 
Ballantine,  Rev  Wm.— Bee-Culture,  1884. 
"Bee-Master,"— The  Times  Bee-Keeping,  1864. 
Benton,  Frank— The  Honey-Bee,  1899. 
Berger,  E.— Untersuchungen  uber  den  Bau  des  Gehirnes  und 

der  Retina  der  Arthropoden,  1873. 
Berlepsch,  A.  Baron  von— Die  Biene  und  ihre  Zucht,  1873 
Bevan,  Dr.  E.— The  Honey-Bee,  1838. 

Blanchard,  E.— Recherches  anatomique  sur  le  systeme  nerveux 
les  Insectes,  1846. 

De  la  circulation  dans  les  Insectes,  1848. 

Du  grand  sympathique  chez  les  Animaux  articules,  1858. 

Bonnet,  C— CEuvres  d'histoire  naturelle,  1779-1783. 
Bonnier,  G.— Les  Nectaires,  1879. 

Bordas,  L.— Glandes    salivaries  des  Apides,   Apis  mellifica, 
(Comptes  rendus  Acad.  Sci.  Paris,)  1894.   Appareil  glandu- 
laire  des  Hymenopteres  (Ann.  Soc  Nat.  Zool.  Paris,)  1894. 
Brandt,  E.— Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Nerve  System   of 

^  Insects  (in  Russian,)  1878. 
Briant,  T.  J.— Notes  on  the  Antennee  of  the  Honey-Bee  (Jour 
Ivinn.  Soc.,)  1883. 

On  the  Anatomy  and  Functions  of  the  Tongue  of  the 

Honey-Bee  (Jour.  Linn.  Soc.,)  1884. 

Antennae  of  Honey-Bee  (Jour.  Linn.  Soc.,)  1885. 

British  Bee  Journal— 1873  to  1889.      Present  Editor    T    W 

Cowan,  F.L.S.,  etc.  ' 

Brougham,  Lord  H.— Observations,  Demonstrations,  and  Ex- 
periments upon  the  Structure  of  the  Cells  of  Bees  (Natural 
Theology,)  1856. 
Buchner,  L.— Mind  in  Animals,  1880. 
Burmeister,  H.— Handbuch  der  Entomologie,  1832. 


192  THB  bes-kbbp»r's  guide; 

Butschli,  O.— Zur  Entwicklungsgeschichte  der  Biene,  1870. 
Cameron,  P. — On  Parthenog-enesis  in  the  Hymenoptera  (Trans. 

Nat.  Hist.  Soc.  of  Glasgow,)  1888. 
Chambers,  V.  T. — On  the  Tongue  of  some  Hymenoptera  (Jor. 

Nat.  Hist.  Soc.  Cincin.,)  1874. 
Cheshire — Bees  and  Bee-Keeping,  two  volumes,  1886. 
Claparede,    E. — Morphologic  des  zusammengesetzten    Anges 

bei  den  Arthropoden  (Zeit.  fur  Wiss.  Zool.,)  1860. 
Clute,  Dr.  O.— Blessed  Bees,  1878. 
Collin,  Abbe — Guide  du  proprietaire  d'Abeilles,  1878. 
Comstock,  H.  J, — Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects,  1895.    Re- 
cent and  authoritative. 
Cowan,  T.  W.— The  Honey-Bee,  1890.    Very  accurate  and  full. 

Bee-Keeper's  Guide  Book,  1881. 

Dadant,  Chas.  and  Son — Langstroth  on  the  Honey-Bee,  1899. 

Dahl,  F.— Archiv.  f.  Naturg.,  1884,  pp.  146-193. 

Darwin,  C— Origin  of  Species,  1859,  1872,  1878. 

Debeauvoys,  M. — L'Apiculteur,  1853. 

Dewitz,  H. — VergleichendeUntersuchungen  uberBau  undEnt- 

wickelung  des  Stachels  der  Honigbiene,  1874. 
Doolittle,  G,  M.— Scientific  Queen-Rearing,  1889. 
DonhofiF,  Dr.— Bienenzeitung,  1851-1854, 
Dufour,  Leon — Memo.  pres.  par  divers  savants   a  I'Acad.  des 

Sci.  de  rinst.  de  France.  Tome  VII. 
Dujardin,   F. — Memoire  sur  le  systeme  nerveux  des  Insectes, 

1851. 

Observations  sur  les  Abeilles,  1852. 

Dumas  et  Milne  Edwards — Sur  la  production  de   la  cire  des 

Abeilles,  1843-1844. 
Duthiers,  E. — Recherches  sur  I'armure  genitale  des  Insectes 

(Ann  des  Scien.  Nat.,)  1848-1852. 
Dzierzon,  Dr. — Bienenzeitung,  1845-1854. 

Theorie  und  Praxis  des  neuen  Bienenfreundes,  1849-1852. 

Rational  Bee-Keeping.     English   translation  by  Dieck 

and  Stutterd,  1882. 
Erichson — De  fabrica  et  usu  antennarum  in  Insectis,  1847. 
Exner,  S. — Ueber  das  Sehen  von  Bewegungen  und  die  Theorie 

des  zusammengesetzten  Auges,  1875. 
Die  Frage  der  Functionsweise  der  Facettenaugen  (Biol. 

Centralblatt,)  1880, 1882. 
Figuier,  L.— The  Insect  World,  translated  by  P.  Martin  Dun- 
can, 1872. 
Fischer,  G. — Bienenzeitung,  1871. 
Geddes,  Prof.  Patrick   and  J.  A.  Thomson — The  Evolution  of 

Sex,  1889. 
Girard,  M. — Sur  la  chaleur  libre  degagee  par  les  animaux  in- 

vertebres  et  specialement  les  Insectes,  1869. 


OR,    MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  193 


■  Traite  elementaire  d'Entomologie,  1873. 

■  Ltes  Abeilles,  organes  et  fonctions,  1878. 


^^^  ^^^y,..,.i^o,  uigauca  CL  lunctions,  18/8. 

Girdwojn,  M.— Anatomic  et  physiologic  de  rAbcille,  1876. 
Gottsche,  C.  M.— Beitrag  zur  Anat.  und  Physiol,  des  Aug-es  der 

Fhegen,  etc.  (Mull.  Arch,  fur  Anat.,)  1852. 
Graber,  Dr.  V.— Ueber  die  Blutkorperchen  der  Insekten,  1871 

Ueber  den  propulsatorischen  Appatat  der  Insekten,  1872. 

Verlaufiger  Bericht  ubcr  den  propulsatorischen  Appa- 

rat  der  Insekten,  1872.  ^^ 

Ueber  neue  otocystenartige  Sinnesorgane  der  Insekten, 


1878. 


Die  Chordotonalen  Sinnesorgane  und  das  Gehor  der  In- 
sekten (Arch.  fur.  Mic.  Anat.,)  1882. 

Grassi,  Dr.  B.— Intorno  alio  sviluppo  delle  Api  nell'  uovo.  1883, 
1884,  1886. 

Grenacher,  H.— Untcrsuchungen  uber  das  Sehorgan  der  Arth- 
ropoden,  1879. 

1886  ^^^"'^^"°^^°  ^^^  vergleichenden  Anatomic  des  Auges, 

^'^TlSf  ^'  ^'  ^'  H.— Heredity  in  Bees  (British  Bee  Journal,) 
1889. 

Gundelach,  F.  W.— Die  Naturgeschichte  der  Honigbiene,  1842. 
Hauser,  G.— Physiologische  und  histologische  Untcrsuchungen 

uber  das  Geruchsorgan  der  Insekten,  1880. 
Haviland,  J.  D.— The  Social  Instincts  of  Bees,  their  Oriffin 

and  Natural  Selection,  1882. 
Heddon,  James— Success  in  Bee-Culture,  1886. 
Helmholz— Sensations  of  Tone. 
Hicks,  Dr.  J.  Braxton— On  a  new  structure  in  the  Antennae  of 

Insects  (Jour.  Linn.  Soc.)  1857. 
On   certain   Sensory  Organs  in  Insects,  hitherto  unde- 

scribed,  1860. 

The  Honcy-Bce  (Samuelson  and  Hicks,)  1860. 

Hickson,  Dr.  S.  J.— The  Eye  and  Optic  Tract  of  Insects  (Quart. 

Jour.  Mic.  Science,)  1885. 
Hopkins,  Isaac— Australasian  Bee-Manual,  1886. 
Huber,  F.— Nouvelles  observations  sur  les  Abeilles,  1814,  (and 

other  editions.) 
Hunter,  J.— On  Bees  (Philosophical  Trans.,)  1792. 

Manual  of  Bee-Keeping,  18— 

Hutchinson,  W.  Z.— Advanced  Bee-Culture,  1883. 

Comb  Honey,  1897. 

Hyatt,  J.  D.— The  Structure  of  the  Tongue  of  the  Honey-Bee 

(Amer.  Quart.  Mic  Jour.,)  1878,  p.  287. 

The  Sting  of  the  Honey-Bee  (ibid,)  1878,  p.  3. 

The  Sting  of  the  Honey-Bee  (Pop.  Sc.  Mon.,)  1879. 

Janscha,  I.  A.— Hinterlassene  vollstandige  Lehre  von  der  Bien- 

enzucht,  1775. 


194  THE  bek-kkkpbr's  guide; 

John,  Dr.  Martin — Ein  neu  Bienen-Buchel,  1691. 

Jurine,   Mademoiselle — Huber's  Nouvelles  observations  sur  les 

Abeilles,  1792-1814. 
King,  H.— Bee-Keepers'  Text-Book,  1883. 
Kirby,  W. — Monographia  Apum  Angliae,  1802. 
Kirby  and  Spence — Introduction  to  Entomology. 
Klein,  Dr.  E. — Handbook   for  the   Physiological  Laboratory, 

1873. 

Elements  of  Histology,  1884. 

Kowalewsky— Embryologische  Studien  an  Wurmern  und  Arth- 

ropoden,  1871. 
Kraepelin,  Dr.  K. — Phys.  und   Hist,  uber  die   Geruchsorgane 

der  Insekten  (Zeit.  f.  Wiss.  Zool.,)  1880. 
Ueber   die    Mundwerkzeuge    der    saugenden    Insekten 

(ibid,)  1882. 

Ueber  die  Geruchsorgane  der  Gliederthiere,  1883. 

Krancher,  Dr.  O.— Der  Bau  der  Stigmen  bei  der  Insekten,  1881. 

Die  dreierlei  Bienenwesen,  1884. 

Lacordaire— Introduction  a  I'Entomologie,  1861. 

Landois,   Dr.  H. — Beitrage  zur  Entwicklungsgeschichte  des 

Schmetterlingsflugels  in  der  Raupe  und  Puppe,  1871. 

Die  ton  und  Stimmapparate  der  Insekten,  1867. 

Langstroth,  L,.  L,.— The  Honey-Bee,  1859-1873. 

Latreille,  P.  A.— Eclaircissemens  reiatifs  a  I'opinion  de  M. 

Huber  fils,  sur  I'origine  et  Tissue  exterieure  de  la  Cire 

(Acad.  Roy.  des  Sciences,)  1821.    Cours  d'entomologie,  1831. 
Iveeuwenhoek,  A. — Select  works,  translated  by  H.  Hoole. 
Lefebvre,  A.— Note  sur  le  sentiment  olfactif  des  Insectes(Ann. 

Soc.  entom.  de  France,)  1838. 
Leuckart,  Dr. — Zur  Kentniss  des  Generationswechsels  und  der 

Parthenogenesis  bei  der  Insekten,  1858. 
Leuckart,  R.— Ueber    Metamorphose,    ungeschlechtliche  Ver- 

mehrung,  Generationswechsel,  1851. 
Iveydig,  F. — Das  Auge  der  Gliederthiere,  1864. 

Zur  Anatomic  der  Insekten  (Mull.  Archiv.  f.  Anat.,)  1859. 

Lhuilier,  S.  A.  J. — Memoire  sur  le  minimum  de  cire  des  alveoles 

des  Abeilles,  et  en  particulier  sur  un  minimum  minimorum 

relatif  a  cette  matiere,  1781. 
Lowe,  J.— Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  Vol.  V.  pp.  547-560,  1867. 
Lowne,  B.  T. — On  the  Simple  and  Compound  Eyes  of  Insects 

(Phil.  Trans.,)  1879. 
On  the  Compound  Vision  and  the  Morphol.  of  the  Eye  in 

Insects  (Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  Lond.,)  1884. 
Lubbock,  Sir  J.— Ants,  Bees  and  Wasps,  1882. 

The  Senses,  Instincts  and  Intelligence  of  Animals,  1889. 

Lucas,  I.  G. — Entwurf  eines  wissenschaftlichen   Systems  fur- 

Bienenzucht,  1808. 
Lucas,  M.  H. — Casde  cyclopie  observe  chez  un  insecte  Hymen- 

optere  (Apis  mellifica,)  1868. 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THB  APIARY.  195 


Lyonet,  Pieter— Traite  anatomique  de  la  chenille  qui  ronge  Le 

bois  de  saule,  etc.,  1762. 
Macloskie,  G. — The  Endocranium  and  Maxillary  Suspensorium 

of  the  Bee  ( Amer.  Natural,  pp.  567-573, )  1884. 
Maraldi,  G.  F.— Observations  sur  les  Abeilles  (Mem.  Acad,  des 

Sciences,)  1712. 
Marey,  E.  J.— Animal  Mechanism  :    A  Treatise  on  Terrestrial 

and  Aerial  Locomotion,  1883. 
Mayer,  Dr.  Paolo— Sopra  certi  Organi  di  Senso  nelle  Antenne 

dei  Ditteri,  1878-79. 
Meckel,  H. — Muller's  Archiv.  fur  Anatomie,  1846. 
Miller,  Dr.  C.  C— A  Year  Among  the  Bees,  1888. 
Milne-Edwards — Manual  of  Zoology,  1863. 
Moufet.T. — Insectorum  sine  minimorum  animalium  Theatrum, 

1634. 
Mullenhoff,   Dr.   K. — Formation  .  of    Honey-Comb    (Pfluger's 

Archiv  f.  gesammt.  Physiol.,  XXXII,  pp.  589-618,)  1883. 
Structure  of  the  Honey-Bee's  Cell   (Arch.  f.  Anat.  und 

Physiol.,  pp.  371-375,)  1886. 
Muller,  J.— Zur  vergleichenden  Physiologic  des  Gesichtsinnes, 

1826. 
Fottgesetzte  anatomische    Untersuchungen     uber  den 

Bau  der  Augen  bei  den  Insekten  und  Crustaceen,  1829. 
Munn,  N.  A.— Bevan  on  the  Honey-Bee,  1870. 
Neighbour,  Alfred— The  Apiary,  1878. 
Newman,  Thomas  G. — Bees  and  Honey,  1892. 
Newport,  G. — On  the  Respiration  of  Insects,  1836. 

Insects  (Todd's  Cyclopedia,  Anat.  and  Phys.,)  1839. 

Article  'Insecta,'  in  Todd's  Cyclopedia  of  Anat.  and 

Physiol.,  Vol.  II,  p.  980,  1839. 

On  the  Uses  of  the  Antennae  of  Insects   (Trans.    Ent. 


Soc.,)  1837-40. 
On  the  Structure  and  Development  of  Blood  (An.  of  Nat. 

Hist.,  XV.,  pp.  281-284,)  1845. 
On  the  Temperature  of  Insects,  and  its  Connection  with 

the  Functions  of  Respiration  and  Circulation,  1837. 
Extracts  from  Essay  in  Martin  Duncan's  Transforma- 
tion of  Insects. 
Packard,  Dr.  A.  S.— A  Text-Book  of  Entomology,  1898.     Very 

full  and  excellent. 

Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects,  1869. 

Pancritius,  Paul. — Beitrage  zur  Kentniss  der  Flugelentwick- 

lung  bei  den  Insekten,  1884. 
Parker  &  Hoswell— Text-Book  of  Zoology,  1897. 
Perez,  J.— Bulletin  de  la  Soc.d'  Apicul.  de  la  Gironde,  1878-1880 

Les  Abeilles,  1889. 

Perris.  Ed— Memoire  sur  le  siege  de  I'odorat  dans  les  Articules, 

1850. 


196  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

Pettig-rew,  J.  Bell— On  the  Mechanical  Appliances  by  which 

Flight  is  attained  in  the  Animal  Kingdom   (Trans.  I^inn. 

Soc.,)  1870. 
Plateau,  F. — Palpes  des  Insectes  broyeurs  (Bui.  de  la  Soc.  Zool. 

de  France,)  1885. 
Recherches    exp.    sur  la  vision    chez  les  Arthropodes 

(Comptes  Rendus  de  la  Soc.  Ent.  de  Belg.,)  1887,   (Bull,  de 

I'Acad.  Roy.  deBelgique,)  1888. 
Planta,   Dr.   A.  von — Die  Brutdeckel    der  Bienen  (Schweitz. 

Bienenzeitung  and  Bui.   d'Apic.  de  la   Suisse  Romande,) 

1884. 
Coloration  de  la  ciredes  Abeilles  (Revue  Internationale,) 

1885. 
— Ueber  die  zugammensetzung  einiger  Nektar  Arten  (Brit. 

Bee  Jour.,  Nectar  and  Honey,)  1886. 

Ueber  den  Futtersaft  der  Bienen,  1888. 

Nochmals  uber  den  Futtersaft  der  Bienen  (Schweitz. 


Bienenzeitung,)  1889. 

PoUmann,  Dr.  A. — Die  Biene  und  ihre  Zucht,  1875. 

Porter,  C.  J.— American  Naturalist,  XVII.,  p.  1238,  1883. 

Quinby,  M. — Mysteries  of  Bee-Keeping,  1885. 

Ramdohr,  T.  C— Kleine  Abhandlungen  aus  der  Anatom.  und 
Physiol,  der  Insecten,  1811, 1813. 

Ranvier — Lecons  sur  I'histologie  du  systeme  nerveux,  1878. 

Ratzeburg,  Dr.  J.  T.  C— Untersuchung  des  Geschlechtszus- 
tandes  bei  den  sogenannten  Neutris  der  Bienen,  1833. 

Reaumur,  R.  A.  F. — Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'histoire  des  In- 
sectes, 1734-1742.     English  Translation,  1744. 

Reid,  Dr.— The  Honey-Bee,  by  E.  Bevan,  p.  388,  1838. 

Rehberg,  A. — Ueber  die  Entwicklungdeslnsectenflugels,  1886. 

Rendu,  V.— ^'intelligence  des  Betes,  1864. 

Rombouts,  Dr.  J.  E. — Locomotion  of  Insects  on  smooth  Sur- 
faces (Amer.  Mon.  Mic.  Jour.,)  1884. 

Root,  A.  I.— A  B  C  of  Bee-Culture,  1890. 

Root,  L*.  C. — Quinby's  Mysteries  of  Bee-Keeping,  1884. 

Schiemenz,  P.— Uber  das  Herkommen  des  Futtersaftes  und  die 
Speicheldrusen  der  Biene,  nebst  einem  Anhange  uber  das 
Riechorgan,  1883. 

Schindler,  E.— Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  -der  Malpighi'schen 
Gefasse  der  Insekten,  1878. 

Schirach,  A.  G.— Physikalische  Untersuchung  der  bisher  un- 
bekannten  aber  nachher  entdeckten  Erzeugung  d.  Bienen- 
mutter,  1767. 

Schonfeld,  Pastor— Bienenzeitung,  1854-1883. 

• Illustrierte  Bienenzeitung,  1885-1890. 

The   Mouth  of  the  Stomach   in   the   Bee  (British  Bee 

Journ.,)  1883. 

Schultze,  M.— Untersuch.  uber  die  zusammengesetzten  Augen 
der  Krebsen  und  Insekten,  1868. 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF   THE   APIARY.  197 

Sedgwick-Minot— Recherches  histolog-ique  sur  les  trachees  de 

I'Hydrophilus  piceus  (Arch,  de  Physiol.  Paris,)  1876. 
Shuckard,  W.  IJ.— British  Bees,  1866. 

Siebold,   Dr.   C.  T.    E.  von— On   a  True   Parthenogenesis  in 
Moths  and  Bees,  1857. 

Bienenzeitung,  1872. 

Ueber  die  Stimm  und  Gehororg-ane  der  Krebse  und  In- 

sekten  (Arch,  fur  Mic.  Anat.,)  1860. 
Simmermacher,   G.— Untersuchungen    uber  Haftapparate  an 

Tarsalgliedern  von  Insekten,  1884. 
Smith,  Dr.  J.  B.— Economic  Entomology,  18%. 
Straus-Durckheim,   H.— L'Anatomie    comparee  des   animaux 

articules,  1828. 
Swammerdam,   J.— Biblia  Naturae,    (in    Dutch,   German   and 
English,)  1737-1752.  .an    <ina 

Tegetmeier,  W.  B.— On  the  Formation  of  Cells  (Rep.  Brit.  As- 
soc, pp.  132,  133,)  1858. 

On  the  Cells  of  the  Honey-Bee  (Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  Eond.. 

p.  34,)  1859.  ' 

Thorley,  J.— Melissologia  ;  or  the  Female  Monarchy,  1744-1765 
TichomiroflF— Development     of  the    Silkworm.     (In   Russian) 

1879. 
Tinker,  G.  E.— Bee-Keeping  for  Profit,  1880. 
Treviranus,  G.  R.— Vermischte   Schriften,  1817,   and   Zeitsch. 

fur  Physiol.,  1829. 
Treviranus,  L,.  Ch.— Medizinische  Zoologie,  1833. 
Viallanes,  H.— Recherches  sur  les  terminaisons  nerveuses  mot- 
rices  dans  les  muscles  stries  des  Insectes,  1881. 
Vogel,  F.  W.— Die  Honigbiene  und  die  Vermehrung-  der  Bien- 

envolker,  1880. 
Waterhouse,  G.  R.— On  the  Formation  of  the  Cells  of  Bees  and 

Wasps,  1864. 
Weismann,  A.— Zeitschrift  f.  Wissenschaft.  Zool.,  1863. 
Westwood's  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Insects,  1840 
Wolff,  Dr.  O.  J.  B.— Das  Riechorgan  der  Biene  (Nova  acta  der 

K.E.  Arch.  Deutsch.  Akad.  d.  Naturf.,)  1875. 
Wyman,  Dr.  J.— Notes  on  the  Cells  of  the  Bee,  1866. 
Zoubareff,  A.— Concerning  an  Organ  of  the  Bee  not  yet  de- 
scribed, (Brit.  B^e  Jour.,)  1883. 


PART   SECOND. 


THE  APIARY; 


ITS  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


MOTTO !— "  Keep  all  colonies  strong.' 


INTKODUCTION  TO 
PART  II. 


STARTING  AN  APIARY. 

In  apiculture,  as  in  all  other  pursuits,  it  is  all-important  to 
make  a  good  beginning.  This  demands  preparation  on  the 
part  of  the  apiarist,  the  procuring  of  bees,  and  location  of  the 
apiary. 

PREPARATION. 

Before  starting  in  the  business,  the  prospective  bee-keeper 
should  inform  himself  in  the  art. 

READ  A   GOOD   MANUAL. 

To  do  this,  he  should  procure  some  good  manual,  and 
thoroughly  study,  especially  that  portion  which  treats  of  the 
practical  part  of  the  business.  If  accustomed  to  read,  think 
and  study,  he  should  carefully  read  the  whole  work,  but  other- 
wise he  will  avoid  confusion  by  only  studying  the  methods  of 
practice,  leaving  the  principles  and  science  to  strengthen,  and 
be  strengthened  by,  his  experience.  Unless  a  student,  he  would 
better  not  take  a  journal  till  he  begins  the  actual  work,  as  so 
much  unclassified  information,  without  any  experience  to 
correct,  arrange  and  select,  will  but  mystify.  For  the  same 
reason  he  may  well  be  content  with  reading  a  single  work  till 
experience,  and  a  thorough  study  of  this  one,  make  him  more 
able  to  discriminate  ;  and  the  same  reasoning  will  preclude  his 
taking  more  than  one  bee-journal  until  he  has  had  at  least  a 
year's  actual  experience. 

VISIT  SOME  APIARIST. 
In  this  work  of  self-preparation,  he  will  find  great  aid  in 
visiting  the  nearest  successful  and  intelligent  apiarist.    If  suc- 
cessful, such  a  one  will  have  a   reputation  ;  if  intelligent,  he 
will  take  the  journals,  and  will  show  by  his  conversation  that 


20i  THE  BSE-KEErER'S  GUIDE  ', 

he  knows  the  methods  and  views  of  his  brother  apiarists,  and, 
above  all,  he  will  not  think  he  knows  it  all,  and  that  his  is  the 
only  way  to  success.  If  possible  he  should  spend  some  weeks 
during  the  active  season  with  such  a  bee-keeper,  and  should 
learn  all  he  could  of  such  a  one,  but  always  let  judgment  and 
common  sense  sit  as  umpire,  that  no  plans  or  decisions  may  be 
made  that  judgment  does  not  fully  sustain. 

TAKE  A  COLLEGE  COURSE. 

It  will  be  most  wise  to  take  a  course  in  some  college,  if 
age  makes  this  practicable,  where  apiculture  is  thoroughly 
discussed.  Here  one  will  not  only  get  the  best  training  in  his 
chosen  business,  as  he  will  study,  see  and  handle,  and  thus 
will  have  the  very  best  aids  to  decide  as  to  methods,  system 
and  apparatus,  but  will  also  receive  that  general  culture 
which  will  greatly  enhance  life's  pleasures  and  usefulness, 
and  which  ever  proves  the  best  capital  in  any  vocation.  At 
the  Michigan  Agricultural  College  there  is  a  fully  equipped 
apiary,  and  the  opportunities  for  special  study  in  bee-keeping 
and  entomology  are  peculiarly  good.  Michigan  is  not  ex- 
ceptional. 

DECIDE  ON  A  PLAN. 

After  such  a  course  as  suggested  above,  it  will  be  easy  to 
decide  as  to  location,  hives,  style  of  honey  to  produce,  and 
general  system  of  management.  But  here,  as  in  all  the  arts, 
all  our  work  should  be  preceded  by  a  well-digested  plan  of 
operations.  As  with  the  farmer  and  the  gardener,  only  he 
who  works  to  a  plan  can  hope  for  the  best  success.  Of  course, 
such  plans  will  vary  as  we  grow  in  wisdom  and  experience.  A 
good  maxim  to  govern  all  plans  is,  "  Go  slow."  A  good  rule 
which  will  insure  the  above,  "  Pay  as  you  go."  Make  the  api- 
ary pay  for  all  improvements  in  advance.  Demand  that  each 
year's  credits  exceed  its  debits ;  and  that  you  may  surely 
accomplish  this  keep  an  accurate  account  of  all  your  receipts 
and  expenses.  This  will  be  a  great  aid  in  arranging  the  plans 
for  each  successive  year's  operations. 

Above  all,  avoid  hobbies,  and  be  slow  to  adopt  sweeping 
changes.     "  Prove  all  things,  hold  fast  that  which  is  good." 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF   THK  APIARY.  203 

HOW  lO  PROCURE  FIRST  COLONIES. 
To  procure  colonies  from  which  to  form  an  apiary,  as  Is  In 
almost  all  kindred  cases,  it  is  always  best  to  get  them  near  at 
hand.  We  thus  avoid  the  shock  of  transportation,  can  see  the 
bees  before  we  purchase,  and  in  case  there  Is  any  seeming 
mistake  can  easily  gain  a  personal  explanation  and  secure  a 
speedy  adjustment  of  any  real  wrong. 

KIND  OF  BBKS  TO  PURCHASE. 

At  the  same  price  always  take  Italians  or  Camlolans,  as 
they  are  certainly  best  for  the  beginner.  If  common  black 
bees  can  be  secured  for  three,  or  even  for  two  dollars  less  per 
colony,  by  all  means  take  them,  as  they  can  be  Italianized  at 
a  profit  for  the  difference  in  cost,  and,  in  the  operation,  the 
young  apiarist  will  gain  valuable  experience. 

Our  motto  will  demand  that  we  purchase  only  strong  colo- 
nies. If,  as  recommended,  the  purchaser  sees  the  colonies 
before  the  bargain  is  closed,  it  wiU  be  easy  to  know  that  the 
colonies  are  strong.  If  the  bees,  as  they  come  rushing  out, 
remind  you  of  Vesuvius  at  her  best,  or  bring  to  mind  the  gush 
and  rush  at  the  nozzle  of  the  fireman's  hose,  then  buy.  In  the 
hives  of  such  colonies  all  combs  will  be  covered  by  the  middle 
of  May  with  bees,  and  in  the  honey  season  brood  will  be  abun- 
dant. It  is  always  wisest  to  begin  In  a  small  way.  He  will 
generally  succeed  best  who  commences  with  not  more  than 
four  or  five  colonies. 

IN  WHAT  KIND   OF   HIVES. 

As  plans  are  already  made,  of  course  it  is  settled  as  to  the 
style  of  hive  to  be  used.  If  bees  can  be  procured  in  such  hives 
they  will  be  worth  just  as  much  more  than  though  in  any 
other  hive,  as  it  costs  to  make  the  hive  and  transfer  the  bees. 
This  will  certainly  be  as  much  as  two  or  three  dollars.  No 
apiarist  will  tolerate,  unless  for  experiment,  two  styles  oj  hives 
in  his  apiary.  Therefore,  unless  you  find  bees  in  such  hives 
as  you  are  to  use,  It  will  be  best  to  buy  them  in  box-hives  if 
possible  and  transfer  (see  Chapter  VII)  to  your  own  hives,  as 
bees  in  box-hives  can  always  be  bought  at  reduced  rates.  In 
case  the  person  from  whom  you  purchase  will  take  the  hives 


204  THB  bEE-KEEPBR'S  GUIDE; 

back  at  a  fair  rate,  after  you  have  transferred  the  bees  to  your 
own  hives,  then  purchase  in  any  style  of  movable-comb  hive, 
as  it  is  easier  to  transfer  from  a  movable-comb  hive  than  fi^om 
a  box-hive.  Some  bee-keepers,  who  were  willing  to  wait,  have 
purchased  a  queen  and  bees  by  the  pound,  and  thus  secured 
colonies  at  very  slight  expense.  A  single  pound  of  bees  with 
a  queen  will  develop  into  a  good  colony  in  a  single  year. 

WHEN  TO  PURCHASE. 

It  is  safe  to  purchase  any  time  in  the  summer.  In  April  or 
May  (of  course  you  purchase  only  strong  colonies)  if  in  the 
latitude  of  New  York  or  Chicago — it  will  be  earlier  further 
south — you  can  afford  to  pay  more,  as  you  will  secure  the 
increase  both  of  honey  and  bees.  If  you  desire  to  purchase  in 
autumn,  that  you  may  gain  by  the  experience  of  wintering, 
either  demand  that  the  one  of  whom  you  purchase  insure  the 
safe  wintering  of  the  bees,  or  else  that  he  reduce  the  selling 
price,  at  least  one-third,  from  his  rates  the  next  April.  Other- 
wise the  novice  would  better  wait  and  purchase  in  the  spring. 
If  you  are  to  transfer  at  once,  it  is  desirable  that  you  buy  in 
spring,  as  it  is  vexatious,  especially  for  the  novice,  to  transfer 
when  the  hives  are  crowded  with  brood  and  honey. 

HOW   MUCH  TO  PAY. 

Of  course  the  market,  which  will  ever  be  governed  by  sup- 
ply and  demand,  must  guide  you.  But  to  aid  you,  I  will 
append  what  at  present  would  be  a  reasonable  schedule  of 
spring  prices  almost  anywhere  in  the  United  States  : 

For  box-hives,  crowded  with  black  bees — Italians  would 
rarely  be  found  in  such  hives — three  dollars  per  colony  is  a 
fair  price.  For  black  bees  in  hives  such  as  you  desire  to  use, 
five  dollars  would  be  reasonable.  For  pure  Italians  in  such 
hives,  seven  dollars  is  not  too  much. 

If  the  person  of  whom  you  purchase  will  take  the  movable- 
comb  hives  after  you  transfer  the  bees,  you  can  afford  to  pay 
three  dollars  for  black  bees,  and  five  dollars  for  pure  Italians. 
If  you  purchase  in  the  fall,  require  33>^  percent  discount  on 
these  rates.    The  above  is,  of  course,  only  suggestive. 


OR,    MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  205 


WHERB  TO  I.OCATE. 


If  apiculture  is  an  avocation,  then  your  location  will  be 
.fixed  by  your  principal  business  or  profession.  And  here  I 
may  state  that,  if  we  may  judge  from,  reports  which  come  from 
nearly  every  section  of  the  United  States,  from  Maine  to 
Texas,  and  from  Florida  to  Oregon,  you  can  hardly  go  amiss 
anywhere  in  our  goodly  land. 

If  you  are  to  engage  as  a  specialist,  then  you  can  select 
first  with  reference  to  society  and  climate,  after  which   it  will 
be  well  to  secure  a  succession  of  natural  honey-plants  (Chap- 
ter XVII),  by  virtue  of  your  locality.    This  suggestion  is  im- 
portant, even  in  California,  though  it  has  far  less  weight  than 
in  other  sections.    If  our  location  is  along  a  river  we  shall  find 
our  honey  harvest  much  prolonged,  as  the  bloom  on  the  upland 
will  be  early,  while  along  the  river  flats  it  will  be  later.     Who 
knows  how  much  the  many  successful  bee-keepers  along  the 
Mohawk  Valley  owe  to  their  excellent  location  ?    The  same 
holds  true  of  the  mouth  of  the  canyons  in  California.    The 
flowers  of  both  mountain  and  valley  will  then  contribute  of 
their  sweets.     We  also  gsiin   in   the  prolonged  honey-flow,  as 
the  mountain  bloom  is  much  the  later.     It  will  also  be  well  to 
look  for  reasonable  prospects  of  a  good  home  market,  as  good 
home  markets  are,  and  must  ever  be,  the  most  desirable.     It 
will  be  important,  also,  that  your  neighborhood  is  not  over- 
stocked with  bees.    It  is  a  well-established  fact,  that  apiarists 
with  few  colonies  receive  relatively  larger  profits,  especially 
in  rather  poor  seasons,  than  those  with  large  apiaries.     While 
this  may  be  owing  in  part  to  better  care,  much  doubtless 
depends  upon  the  fact  that  there  is  not  an  undue  proportion  of 
bees  to  the  number  of  honey-plants,  and  consequent  secretion 
of  nectar.     To  have  the  undisputed  monopoly  of  an  area  reach- 
ing at  least  two  and  one-half  miles  in  every  direction  from 
your  apiary,  is  unquestionably  a  great  advantage. 

If  you  desire  to  begin  two  kinds  of  business,  so  that  your 
dangers  from  possible  misfortune  may  be  lessened,  then  a 
small  farm— especially  a  fruit-farm— in  some  locality  where 
fruit-raising  is  successfully  practiced,  will  be  very  desirable. 
You  thus  add  others  of  the  luxuries  of  life  to  the  products  of 


206  THE   BEE-KEEPER'S  GUIDE; 

your  business,  and  at  the  same  time  may  create  additional 
pasturage  for  your  bees  by  simply  attending  to  your  other 
business.  In  this  case,  your  location  becomes  a  more  complex 
matter,  and  will  demand  still  greater  thought  and  attention. 
Some  of  America's  most  successful  apiarists  are  also  noted  as 
successful  pomologists.  A  dairy  farm,  especially  where  win- 
ter dairying  is  carried  on,  would  combine  well  with  bee-keep- 
ing. The  alsike  clover  would  please  alike  the  cattle  and  the 
bees.  This  is  equally  true  in  sections  of  California  and 
Arizona,  etc.,  only  alfalfa  takes  the  place  of  alsike  clover. 

Bees  are  often  taken  "on  shares."  It  is  usual  for  one 
party  to  furnish  the  bees,  the  other  to  perform  all  the  labor. 
The  expenses  are  shared  equally,  as  are  the  proceeds,  both  of 
bees  and  honey.  Where  one  has  more  colonies  of  bees  than 
will  do  well  in  one  place — more  than  100  East,  more  than  250 
in  California — then  "out-apiaries  "  are  often  desirable.  Such 
men  as  Dr.  Miller,  Messrs.  Manum,  France,  Dadant,  Elwood, 
Mendleson,  and  Hetherington,  find  these  very  profitable.  Of 
course,  this  is  like  running  a  railroad,  and  success  will  only 
mate  with  brains,  gumption  and  pluck.  The  out-apiaries 
should  be  as  convenient  as  bee-forage,  roads  and  location  will 
permit.  If  possible,  it  is  wise  to  locate  on  some  farm,  and 
arrange  so  the  farmer  will  have  an  interest  that  will  insure 
some  oversight  when  the  apiarist  is  away.  A  fruit-grower 
may  be  wise  enough  to  covet  the  presence  of  the  bees,  and  so 
give  service  to  secure  it. 

Of  course,  convenient  hives  for  moving,  and  a  wagon 
arranged  with  suitable  rack,  are  very  desirable.  Great  pains 
must  be  taken  that  the  bees  are  all  secure.  Horses  stung  may 
mean  great  loss  and  harm.  Mr.  Manum  makes  assurance 
doubly  sure  by  covering  his  horses  entirely  with  cotton  blan- 
kets. One  enterprising  and  energetic  enough  to  found  out- 
apiaries  will  have  the  gumption  to  success,  and  fully  meet 
every  emergency. 

For  position  and  arrangement  of  apiary  see  Chapter  VI. 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THB  APIARY.  207 


CHAPTER  V. 

HIVES  AND  SECTIONS. 

An  early  choice  among  the  innumerable  hives  is  of  course 
demanded  ;  and  here  let  me  state  with  emphasis,  that  none  of 
the  standard  hives  are  now  covered  by  patents,  so  let  no  one  buy 
rights.  It  is  in  nearly  all  sections  of  our  country,  happily, 
unnecessary  to  decry  patent  hives.  Our  excellent  bee-periodi- 
cals have  driven  from  among  us,  for  the  most  part,  that  excres- 
cence—the patent-hive  man.  His  wares  were  usually  worth- 
less, and  his  life  too  often  a  lie,  as  his  representations  were 
not  infrequently  false  to  the  letter.  As  our  bee-men  so  gen- 
erally read  the  bee-papers,  the  patent-hive  vendor  will  grow 
less  and  less,  and  will  soon  exist  only  in  the  past.  It  will  be 
a  blessed  riddance. 

Success  by  the  skillful  apiarist  with  almost  any  hive,  is 
possible.  Yet,  without  question,  some  hives  are  far  superior 
to  others,  and  for  certain  uses,  and  with  certain  persons,  some 
hives  are  far  preferable  to  others,  though  all  may  be  meritori- 
ous. As  a  change  in  hives,  after  one  is  once  engaged  in  api- 
culture, involves  much  time,  labor  and  expense,  this  becomes 
an  important  question,  and  one  worthy  of  earnest  considera- 
tion by  the  prospective  apiarist.  I  shall  give  it  a  first  place, 
and  a  thorough  consideration,  in  this  discussion  of  practical 
apiculture. 

BOX-HIVES. 

I  feel  free  to  say  that  no  person  who  reads,  thinks  and 
studies— and  success  in  apiculture  can  be  promised  to  no  other 
— wiU  ever  be  content  to  use  the  old  box-hives.  In  fact, 
thought  and  intelligence,  which  imply  an  eagerness  to  investi- 
gate, are  essential  elements  in  the  apiarist's  character,  and  to 
such  a  one  a  box-hive  would  be  valued  just  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  kindling-wood  it  contained.  I  shall  entirely  ignore 
box-hives  in  the  following  discussions,  for  I  believe  no  sensi- 
ble, intelligent  apiarists,  such  as  read  books,  will  tolerate 
them,  and  that,  supposing  they  should,  it  would  be  a^  expen- 


208 


THE  BEEKEEPER  S  GUIDB 


sive  mistake  which  I  have  no  right  to  encourage,  in  fact,  am 
bound  to  discourage,  not  only  for  the  benefit  of  individuals, 
but  also  for  the  art  itself. 

To  be  sure  of  success,  the  apiarist  must  be  able  to  inspect 
the  whole  interior  of  the  hive  at  his  pleasure,  must  be  able  to 

Fig.  82. 


The  Munn  Hive,  after  Munn. 


exchange  combs  from  one  hive  to  another,  and  to  regulate  the 
movements  of  the  bees — by  destroying  queen-cells,  by  giving 
or  withholding  drone-comb,  by  extracting  the  honey,  by  Intro- 
ducing queens,  and  by  many  other  manipulations  to  be  ex- 
plained, which  are  only  practicable  with  a  movable-comb  hive. 

MOVABLE-COMB   HIVES. 

There  are,  at  present,  two  types  of  the  movable-comb  hive 
in  use  among  us,  each  of  which  is  unquestionably  valuable,  as 
each  has  advocates  among  our  most  intelligent,  successful,  and 
extensive  apiarists.  Each,  too,  has  been  superseded  by  the 
other,  to  the  satisfaction   of  the  person   making  the  change. 


OR,  MANUAI,   OF   THB   APIARY. 


209 


The  kind  most  used  consists  of  a  box,  in  which  hang-  the 
frames  which  hold  the  combs.  The  adjacent  frames  are  so  far 
separated  that  the  combs,  which  just  fill  them,  shall  be  the 
proper  distance  apart.  In  the  other  kind,  the  ends  of .  the 
frames  are  wider  than  the  comb,  and  when  in  position  are 
close  together,  and  of  themselves  form  two  sides  of  a  box. 
When  in  use  these  frames  are  surrounded  bj  a  second  box, 
without  a  bottom,  which,  with  them,  rests  on  a  bottom-board'. 
Each  of  these  kinds  is  represented  by  various  forms,  sizes, 
Fig.  83. 


Munn's  Improved  Eive,  after  Munn. 

etc.,  where  the  details  are  varied  to  suit  the  apiarist's  notion. 
Yet,  I  believe  that  all  hives  in  present  use,  worthy  of  recom- 
mendation, fall  within  one  or  the  other  of  the  above-named 
types. 

EARLY  FRAME  HIVES. 
In  1843,  Mr.  Augustus  Munn,  of  England,  invented  a  mov- 
able-comb hive  (Fig.  82),  which  I  need  hardly  say  was  not  the 
Langstroth  hive,  nor  a  practical  one.   In  1851  this  hive  (Fig.  83) 


210  THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 

was  improved  (?).  Well  does  Neighbour  say  in  his  vala- 
able  hand-book,  "  This  invention  was  of  no  avail  to  apiarists." 
M.  DeBeauvoys,  of  France,  in  1847,  and  Schmidt,  of  Ger- 
many, in  1851,  invented  movable-comb  hives.  The  frames 
were  tight-fitting,  and,  of  course,  not  practical.  Dzierzon 
adopted  the  bar  hive  in  1838.  In  this  hive  each  comb  had  to 
be  cut  loose  as  it  was  removed.  It  is  strange  that  Mr.  Cheshire 
speaks  of  Dzierzon's  hive  in  connection  with  the  Langstroth. 
It  was  a  diflrerent  type  of  hive  entirely. 

THE   LANGSTROTH  HIVE- 

In  1851  our  own  Langstroth,  without  any  knowledge  of 
what  foreign  apiarian  inventors  had  done,  save  what  he  could 
find  in  Huber,  and  edition  1838  of  Bevan,  invented  the  hive 
(Fig.  84)  now  in  common  use  among  the  advanced  apiarists  oJ 

Fig.  84. 


Tioo-slonj  Langitrotk  Eivc. — From  A.  I.  Root  Co, 

America.  It  is  this  hive,  the  greatest  apiarian  invcirtios  evtr 
made,  that  has  placed  American  apiculture  in  advance  or  that 
of  all  other  countries.  What  practical  bee-keeper  of  America 
could  agree  with  H.  Hamet,  edition  1861,  p.  166,  who,  in  speak- 
ing of  the  DeBeauvoys'  hive,  says  that  the  improved  hives 
were  without  value  except  to  the  amateur,  and  inferior  for 
practical  purposes?  Our  apiarists  not  native  to  our  shores, 
like  the  late  Adam  Grimm,  Mr.  C.  F.  Muth  and  Mr.  Charles 
Dadant,  always  conceded  that  Mr.  Langstroth  was  the  inven- 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF   THB   APIARY.  211 

tor  of  this  hive,  and  always  proclaimed  its  usefulness.  Well 
did  the  late  Mr.  S.  Wagner,  the  honest,  fearless,  scholarly, 
truth-loving  editor  of  the  early  volumes  of  the  American  Bee 
Journal,  himself  of  German  origin,  say  :  "  When  Mr.  Lang- 
stroth  took  up  this  subject,  he  well  knew  what  Huber  had  done, 
and  saw  wherein  he  had  failed— failing,  possibly,  only  because 
he  aimed  at  nothing  more  than  constructing  an  observatory 
hive  suitable  for  his  purposes.  Mr.  L,angstroth's  object  was 
other  and  higher.  He  aimed  at  making  frames  movable,  inter- 
changeable, and /rac/zVa/Zy  serviceable  in  bee-culture."  And 
how  true  what  follows  :  "  Nobody  before  Mr.  Langstroth  ever 
succeeded  in  devising  a  mode  of  making  and  using  a  movable 
frame  that  was  of  any  practical  value  in  bee-culture."  No 
man  in  the  world,  besides  Mr.  Langstroth,  was  so  conversant 
with  this  whole  subject  as  was  Mr.  Wagner.  His  extensive 
library  and  thorough  knowledge  made  him  a  competent  judge. 
Mr.  Langstroth,  though  he  knew  of  no  previous  invention 
of  frames  contained  in  a  case,  when  he  made  his  invention,  in 
1851,  does  not  profess  to  have  been  the  first  to  have  invented 
them.  Every  page  of  his  book  shows  his  transparent  honesty, 
and  his  desire  to  give  all  due  credit  to  other  writers  and  inven- 
tors. He  does  claim,  and  very  justly,  to  have  invented  the 
first  practical  frame  hive,  the  one  described  in  his  patent, 
appUed  for  in  January,  1851,  and  in  all  three  editions  of  his 
book. 

For  this  great  invention,  as  well  as  his  able  researches  in 
apiculture,  as  given  in  his  invaluable  book,  "The  Honey-Bee," 
he  has  conferred  a  benefit  upon  our  art  which  can  not  be  over- 
estimated, and  for  which  we,  as  apiarists,  can  not  be  too  grate- 
ful. It  was  his  book— one  of  my  old  teachers,  for  which  I  have 
no  word  of  chiding— that  led  me  to  some  of  the  most  delightful 
investigations  of  my  life.  It  was  his  invention— the  Lang- 
stroth  hive— that  enabled  me  to  make  those  investigations. 
For  one,  I  shall  always  revere  the  name  of  Ivangstroth,  as  a 
great  leader  in  scientific  apiculture,  both  in  America  and 
throughout  the  world.  His  name  must  ever  stand  beside  those 
of  Dzierzon  and  the  elder  Huber.  Surely  this  hive,  which  left 
the  hands  of  the  great  master  in  so  perfect  a  form  that  even 
the  details  remain  practically  unchanged  by  many,  I  think 


212 


THE   BEE-KEEPER  S  GUIDE; 


most,  of  our  first  bee-keepers,  should  ever  bear  his  name. 
Thus,  though  many  use  square  frames  like  the  Gallup,  or  deep 
frames,  yet  all  are  Langstroth  hives. 


CHARACTER  OF   THE   HIVE. 


The  main  feature  of  the  hive  should  be  simplicity,  thereby 
excluding-  drawers  and  traps  of  all  kinds.  The  hive  should  be 
made  of  good  pine  or  whitewood  lumber,  thoroughly  seasoned. 


Principle  of  Warping. 


-From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 


planed  on  both  sides,  and  painted  white  on  the  outside.  In 
making  the  hive  nail  the  heart  side  of  the  board  out,  so  as  to 
prevent  warping.    To  understand  why  see  Fig.  85.     Figure  84 

Fig.  86, 


One-story  Langstroth  Hive. — From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 

represents  a  two-story  Langstroth  hive.  As  will  be  seen,  this 
has  a  portico,  and  a  bottom-board  firmly  nailed  to  the  hive. 
Although  Mr.  Langstroth  desired  both  these  features,  and 
many  now  are  like-minded,  many  others  omit  both  features. 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  213 

This  hive  holds  eight  frames,  which  are  as  many  as  such  bee- 
keepers as  Messrs.  Heddon,  Taylor  and  Hutchinson  desire. 

Figure  86  represents  the  Simplicity  one-story  Langstroth 
hive  as  made  by  A.  I.  Root.  This  contains  10  frames,  which, 
unfortunately,  were  slightly  modified  so  that  they  are  17>J 
instead  of  17^  inches  long.     Thus,  this  is  not  the  I^angstroth 

Fig.  87. 


Two-story  Langstroth  Hive  (Gallup  Fratne.) -Original. 


a  Cover  hinged  to  hive, 
c  Brood-chamber, 
e  Alighting- board. 
Brood-frames. 


b  Upper  story. 
d  Bottom-board. 
i  Wide  section-frames. 
A,  h  Frames  outside  hive. 


214 


THE   BEE-KEEPER  S  GUIDE 


frame,  but  the  Simplicitv-Laagstroth.  This  style,  one-story, 
is  designed  for  securing-  comb  honey,  while  the  two-story  (Fig-. 
84)  is  intended  for  use  in  obtaining  extracted  honey.  Figure 
87  represents  a  two-story  Simplicity-Langstroth  hive  with 
Gallup  frame;  which  is  11  j^  inches  square.  This  hive  is  pre- 
ferred by  G.  M.  Doolittle.  I  have  used  it  more  than  any  other, 
and  it  has  much  to  recommend  it.  The  Simplicity  feature 
invented  by  A.  I.  Root,  I  think,  consists  of  a  bevel  union  of 
hive  with  cover  and  bottom-board  (Fig.  87).  I  think  Mr.  Root 
prefers  this  style  no  longer.     Any  Langstroth  hive,  with  what- 

FiG.  88. 


Jones''  Chaff-JJive.  Frame,  Frame  for  HcctioiiS,  Div'tsiun- Board  and  Perfor- 
afed-Zinc  Division-Board.— From  D,  A.  Jones. 


ever  frame,  with  these  bevel  connections  is  a  Simplicity  hive. 
This  hive  can  be  used  to  secure  either  comb  or  extracted 
honey.  The  bottom-board,  d,  and  the  alighting-board,  e,  may 
be  separate  from  each  other  and  from  the  hive  ;  the  opening 
may  be  made  by  cutting  a  V-shaped  space  in  the  bottom-board, 
while  the  cover,  a,  may  or  may  not  be  hinged  to  the  upper 
story.  Mr.  Root,  in  the  original  Simplicity,  used  the  cover  as 
a  bottom-board,  and  formed  an  entrance  by  pushing  the  hive  a 
little  to  one  side.  Many  prefer  to  have  the  cover  with  a  gable 
(Fig.  88),  so  made  as  to  join  the  hive  with  a  rabbet  (Fig.  86  and 
88),  or  to  shut  over  the  hive  and  rest  on  shoulders  formed  by 


OR.  MANUAL   OF   THE   APIARY.  21S 

tiailing  cleats  about  the  hive  near  the  top.  These  are  heavy 
and  costly.  I  much  prefer  a  flat  cover,  and,  if  necessary  to 
keep  out  water,  we  can  follow  Mr.  Dbolittle's  plan  and  sheet 
with  tin  or  zinc,  though  I  think  this  unnecessary. 

Figure  88  represents  the  Jones  chaff  hive.  This  takes  a 
deep  frame,  and  has  double  walls  for  chaff  packing.  These 
chaff  hives  are  expensive,  hard  to  handle  and  awkward  to  man- 
age. After  years  of  experience  I  discarded  the  chaff  hives  as 
no  better  in  summer  than  the  single-walled  hives,  and  not  so 
safe  in  winter  as  a  good  cellar.  I  have  disposed  of  all  of  mine 
except  three,  which  I  keep  for  examples.  Many,  however, 
prefer  such  hives,  and  in  some  sections,  and  with  some  bee- 
keepers, they  may  be  desirable. 

WHAT  STYI,E  TO  ADOPT. 

For  many  years  I  have  used  the  Heddon-L<angstroth,  and 
like  it  so  much  that  I  recommend  it  above  all  others  that  I  have 
tried.  It  is  not  only  the  simplest  hive  I  have  ever  seen,  but 
possesses  many  substantial  advantages  that  are  not  possessed 
by  any  other  hive  so  far  as  I  know.  It  can  be  used  with  any 
size  frame  desired.  I  have  it  in  use  both  with  Langstroth  and 
Gallup  frames.  I  am  free  to  express  my  preference  for  the 
Langstroth  hive,  with  L,angstroth  frames.  Its  excellence 
warrants  me  in  doing  so,  and  the  fact  that  it  is  by  far  the  most 
used  of  any  hive  in  the  country,  gives  great  advantage  when 
one  wishes  to  buy  or  sell  bees.  No  beginner  can  make  a  mis- 
take in  adopting  this  hive.  I  will  describe  the  hive  for  Lang- 
stroth frame,  but  would  advise  any  one  to  get  a  good  hive  as  a 
pattern,  if  he  is  to  adopt  them,  as  much  depends  upon  perfect 
exactness. 

The  bottom-board  and  alighting-board  (Fig.  87)  may  be 
separate  if  preferred,  or  not  nailed  to  the  hive.  Mr.  Heddon 
nails  the  bottom-board  fast,  and  lets  it  project  at  one  end,  as 
seen  in  the  figure  (Fig.  89).  A  hive-stand  is  made  by  taking 
two  boards  (Fig.  89,  F)  six  inches  wide,  and  nearly  as  long  as 
the  bottom-board.  Connect  these  at  one  end  by  a  board  4>^ 
inches  wide,  and  as  long  as  the  hive  is  wide,  nailed  firmly  at  the 
bottom,  and  into  the  ends,  and  at  the  other  end  by  a  like  board 
nailed  the  same   way.     We   see  (Fig.  94)  this  end-piece  at  the 


216 


THE  BEE-KEEPER  S   GUIDE; 


front  of  the  hive  nailed  at  the  bottom  so  it  rests  on  the  ground. 
At  the  opposite  end  a  like  piece  is  nailed  in  the  same  way,  so 
that  all  is  even  on  the  bottom.  Figure  89  explains  this  better. 
The  bottom  of  the  hive  (Fig.  89,  A)  is  13x19^  inches,  outside 
measure,  the  sides  made  of  six-eighths  inch,  bottom  and  cover  of 
five-eighths,  and  ends  of  seven-eighths  inch  lumber.  The 
height  of  this  plain  box  is  just  10  inches  ;  that  is,  it  is  made  of 

Fig.  89 


Heddon-Lantjstroth  Hive. — From  Jatne*  Beddon. 


F  Bottom-board. 
C  Honey-board. 
Z' Cover. 


A  Brood-chamber. 
D  Case  with  sections. 


boards  10  inches  wide.  The  side  boards  are  19J^  inches  long, 
so  that  they  nail  to  the  ends  of  the  end-boards.  If  the  comers 
are  rabbeted,  or,  better,  dovetailed  (Fig.  90),  they  will  be 
stronger,  and  less  apt  to  separate  with  age  and  use.  When 
used  with  the  Gallup  frame  the  ends  of  the  hive  project,  and 
are  nailed  into  the  ends  of  the  side-boards.  The  end-boards 
are  rabbeted  on  top.  This  rabbet  is  cut  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  deeper  than  the  thickness  of  the  top-bar  of  the  frame. 
With  the  Gallup  frame  (Fig.  96)  we  rabbet  the  side-boards.  If 
the  top-bar  is  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick  this  rabbet  should 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF  THB   APIARY. 


217 


be  six-eighths  precisely.  This  is  z>ery  important,  as  we  must 
have  a  three-eighths  space  exactly  between  the  top-bar  and  the 
top  of  the  hive.  If  we  make  the  hive  ten  and  one-eighth  (10>^) 
inches  high  we  give  a  space  of  half-inch  between  the  bottom 
of  the  frame  and  bottom  of  hive.  I  like  this  wide  space,  and 
there  is  no  objection  to  it.  Near  the  top  of  the  hive  we'  will 
nail  narrow  cleats  entirely  around  it;  these  strengthen  the 
hive,  and  are  convenient  supports  by  which  to  lift  the  hive. 
Hand  grooves  (Fig.  90)  can  also  be  cut  in  end  and  side-boards 
for  convenience  in  handling,  if  desired.  Mr.  Root  favors  these 
hand-holes  always.  They  are  easily  cut,  and  are  surely  a 
convenience. 

The  entrance  is  cut   in  the  end  of  the   hive  (Fig.  89),  and 
the  size  is  easily  regulated  by  use  of  the  Langstroth  triangular 

Fig.  90. 


DovetailM  iriue.—From  A.  I.  Hoot  Co. 


blocks  (Fig.  89,  B,  B).  Thus  we  may  gauge  the  size  to  our 
hkmg.  I  would  have  the  entrance  the  whole  width  of  the 
hive,  and  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  high.  This  may  aid  to 
prevent  the  bees  hanging  out  of  the  hive,  and  likewise  may 
restrain  the  swarming  impulse.  The  opening  in  the  bottom- 
board  (Fig.  87)  is  preferred  by  many.  This  is  enlarged  or 
restricted  by  simply  pushing  the  hive  forward  or  back,  and,  of 


2id 


THE  bee-keeper's  guide  ; 


course,  can  only  be  used  with  loose  bottom-boards.  The  fact 
that  most  bee-keepers  nail  the  bottom-board  firmly  and  cut  the 
opening,'  from  the  hive,  argues  that  this  on  the  whole  is  the 
better  style.'  For  shipping  and  moving  bees,  which,  with 
"out-apiaries  "  and  change  of  location  to  secure  better  pastur- 
age, promises  to  be  more  and  more  the  practice,  the  nailed 

Fig.  91. 


^ 


XBCSSESSZS. 


i  I  M  M  M  I  I  'f  I   II  UU-L 


E 


Queen- Excluding  Honey-Board. — From  D,  A.  Joyies. 


bottom-boards  are  very  desirable;  for  quick  cleaning  of  the 
hives  when  spring  opens,  the  movable  bottoms  are  preferable. 

There  should  never  be  but  this  one  opening.  Auger-holes 
above,  and  openings  opposite  the  entrance,  are  worse  than 
useless. 

Except  in  very  damp  locations  the  hive  should  not  rest 
more  than  five  or  six  inches  from  the  ground.  Tired  and 
heavily  laden  bees,  especially  on  windy  days,  may  fail  to  gain 
the  hive,  if  it  is  high  up,  as  they  return  from  the  field. 

For  extracted  honey,  we  use  a  second  story  precisely  like 
the  body  of  the  hive,  except  it  is  a  half-inch  less  in  depth ; 
that  is,  the  sides  are9'>  instead  of  10  inches  wide.  Mr.  Dadant 
prefers  half-story  hives  for  the  extracting  frames,  but  he  uses 
the  large  Quinby  frame  (Fig.  95).  If  we  wish  we  can  follow  Da- 
dant, and  use  two  or  more  of  these  upper  stories,  and  tier  up,  in 


OR,  MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY. 


219 


which  case  we  would  not  need  to  extract  until  the  close  of  the 
harvest,  when  the  honey  would  be  ripened  in  the  hive. 

Upon  the  body  of  the  hive  rests  the  slatted  honey-board 
(Fig.  91).  It  is  seen  in  place  (Figs.  89  and  93).  This  is  also  13 
by  19J^  inches.  The  outer  rim  of  this  valuable  invention  and 
the  slats  are  in  one  plane  on  the  under  surface,  and  the  slats 
are  three-eighths  of  an  inch  apart,  leaving  passages  that  width 
for  the  bees  to  pass  through.  On  the  upper  surface  the 
rim  projects  three-eighths  of  an  inch  above  the  slats,  so  that  if 
a  board  be  laid  on  the  honey-board  its  lower  surface  will  be 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  above  the  slats.  When  the  honey- 
board  is  placed  on  the  hive,  the  spaces  between  the  slats  must 
rest  exactly  over  the  center  of  the  top-bars  of  the  brood-frames 
below.  In  using  hives  with  the  Gallup  or  American  frames 
the  slats  of  course  will  run  crosswise  of  the  honey-board,  and 
as  before  must  break  joints  with   the  top-bars  of  the  frames. 


Fig.  92. 


Plain  Division-Board. 


— From  D.  A.  Jones. 


Perforated- Zinc  Division- Board. 


The  use  of  this  prevents  the  bees  from  building  brace-combs 
above  the  brood-frames,  and  keeps  the  sections  very  neat.  No 
one  after  using  this  will  do  without  it,  I  am  sure.  By  tacking 
a  piece  of  perforated-zinc  (Fig.  92)  on  the  under  side  of  this 
honey-board  it  also  becomes  a  queen-excluder.  The  grooves 
in  the  zinc  must  be  very  exact.  They  are  .165  of  an  inch  wide. 
It  is  cheaper,  and  so  better,  simply  to  place  a  narrow  strip  of 
the  perforated-zinc  between  the  slats  of  the  honey-board  (Fig. 


22d  THE  BEE-KEKPER'S  GUIDE; 

91).  By  grooving-  the  edges  of  the  slats  it  is  easy  to  insert  the 
zinc  strips  when  making  the  honey-board.  The  honey-board 
may  be  wholly  of  zinc  with  a  wooden  rim.  The  objection  to 
this  is  the  fact  that  the  zinc  is  likely  to  sag  and  bend.  Mr. 
Heddon  suggests  that  a  V-shaped  piece  of  tin  be  soldered  across 
the  middle  to  strengthen  the  zinc  and  prevent  sagging.  The 
tin  should  be  so  placed  as  not  to  touch  the  frames  below,  but 
come  between  them.  Mr.  Heddon  also  suggests  that  the 
wooden  rim  be  replaced  by  a  narrow  margin  of  the  zinc  itself, 
bent  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  metal. 

THE  HEDDON   SURPLUS-CASE. 

As  this  admirable  case  is  also  a  part  of  this  hive,  I  will 
describe  it  right  here,  though  it  properly  belongs  to  the  sub- 
ject of  case  for  surplus  honey.  This  case  is  just  as  long  and 
broad  as  the  hive,  and  three-eighths  of  an  inch  deeper  than  the 
height  of  the  section  to  be  used.  (See  Fig.  89, /?.)  Thus,  on 
the  hive  described  it  will  be  13  by  19%  inches,  and  if  we  use 
common  1-pound  sections,  which  are  4^  inches  square,  it  will 
be  4)^  inches  deep.  Partitions  are  fastened  in  by  use  of 
screws  or  nails  just  far  enough  apart  to  receive  the  sections; 
thus,  in  the  1-pound  sections,  4^  inches  apart.  These  parti- 
tions are  as  wide  as  the  crate  or  case  is  deep.  Narrow  strips 
of  tin  are  nailed  to  the  bottom  of  these  partitions  and  to  the 
bottom  of  the  ends  of  the  case,  projecting  enough  to  sustain 
the  sections  when  they  are  placed  in  the  case.  It  will  be  seen 
that  when  in  place  the  sections  reach  to  within  three-eighths  of 
an  inch  of  the  top  of  the  case.  This  must  be  just  three-eighths 
of  an  inch.  It  keeps  the  sections  all  clean,  but  will  not  if  not 
JUST  this  bee-space. 

THE  COVER. 

The  cover  of  the  hive  (Fig.  89,  E)  is  a  plain  board,  a  little 
wider  and  longer  than  the  hive.  The  ends  of  this  are  fitted 
into  a  grooved  cross-piece  about  twice  as  thick  as  the  board, 
and  firmly  nailed.  These  cross-pieces  prevent  the  top  from 
warping  and  splitting.  If  preferred,  the  cover  need  be  no 
longer  or  wider  than  the  hive.  In  this  case  cross-pieces  should 
be  firmly  nailed  on  the  upper  side  to  prevent  warping  or  split- 
ting.   It  will  be  seen  that  we  have  here  no  telescoping,  and  no 


OR,    MANUAIv  OF  THE  APIARY.  221 

beveliniT— simply  one  board  rests  upon  another.  At  first  I 
was  much  prejudiced  against  this  simple  arrangement.  After 
giving  it  a  thorough  trial  I  wish  nothing  else.  The  only  criti- 
cism I  have  for  this  hive  after  several  years'  experience  is, 
that  if  the  board  cover  is  used  in  spring,  the  protection  is  in- 
sufficient. We  break  the  propolis  or  glue  in  examining  the 
bees,  and  then  as  the  bees  can  not  glue  all  close  at  this  early 
season,  the  brood  is  apt  to  chill,  and  the  bees  to  suffer,  espe- 
cially if  the  sides  of  the  hives  have  shrunken,  or  the  cover 
warped.  By  use  of  a  quilt  or  warm  woolen  cloth  just  the  size 
of  the  hive  placed  above,  and  a  crate  filled  with  dry  sawdust 
above  this,  all  is  made  snug  and  comfortable,  and  even  this 
objection  disappears.  To  adopt  this  style  of  hive  is  not  ex- 
pensive. We  can  use  the  same  frames  as  before,  and  can  make 
all  new  hives  of  this  simple,  plain  pattern,  and  in  time  we  will 
have  only  these  hives. 

To  shade  the  hive  nothing  is  so  good  as  a  shade-board 
made  considerably  wider  than  the  hive,  and  nailed  to  two 
cleats  five  inches  wide.  Thus,  when  resting  on  the  hive  this 
shade-board  will  be  five  inches  above  the  top  of  the  hive.  This 
has  never  blown  off  of  my  hives.  Should  it  do  so  a  brick 
could  easily  be  fastened  to  the  under  side,  out  of  sight,  and 
thus  make  it  entirely  safe  against  winds. 

Thus  I  have  described  the  Heddon-Langstroth  hive 
minutely,  as  with  W.  Z.  Hutchinson,  R.  L.  Taylor,  and  many 
others  of  our  most  able  and  intelligent  apiarists,  I  find  it,  upon 
trial,  as  excellent  as  it  is  simple.  Surely,  when  we  can  har- 
ness excellence  and  simplicity  together  we  have  a  most  desir- 
able team.  The  simple  union  of  parts  by  mere  plain  contact 
of  the  edges,  or  the  cover  simply  lying  on  the  hive,  while  it  is 
just  as  acceptable  to  the  bees,  makes  the  hive  far  more  simple 
of  construction,  and  easy  of  manipulation.  The  honey-board 
and  bee-spaces  keep  all  so  neat,  that  as  one  bee-keeper  well 
says,  their  extra  expense  is  very  soon  saved  in  the  saving  of 
time  which  their  use  insures.  Any  who  may  think  of  trying 
this  hive  better  do  as  I  did,  try  two  or  three  at  first,  and  see  if 
in  their  judgment  the  "  game  is  worth  the  candle." 

All  hives  should  be  well  painted  with  white  paint.  This 
color  makes  the  heat  less  trying  to  the  combs  and  bees.    While 


222  THE  BEE-KKKPKR'S  GUIDE; 

it  may  not  be  profitable  to  paint,  yet  when  neatness  and  dura- 
bility are  both  considered,  surely  painting  pays  well.  For 
paint  I  would  use  white  lead,  zinc  and  oil — about  one-third  as 
much  zinc  as  lead.  Mr.  Doolittle,  whose  opinion  justly  ranks 
very  high  among  American  bee-keepers,  thinks  that  white 
paint  makes  shade  unnecessary. 

DIVISION-BOARD. 

A  close-fitting  division-board  (Fig.  92)  is  very  important, 
and  no  L<angstroth  hive  is  complete  without  it.  Mr.  Heddon, 
in  his  excellent  book,  follows  the  English,  and  calls  this  a 
dummy.  It  is  especially  useful  in  autumn,  winter  and  spring 
in  contracting  the  hive,  and  thus  economizing  heat,  and  at 
the  harvest  seasons  in  contracting  the  brood-chamber,  so  as  to 
secure  the  honey  in  the  sections  where  it  is  desired.  It  is 
made  the  same  form  as  the  frames,  but  is  a  little  larger  so 
that  it  is  close-fitting  in  the  hive.  It  is  easily  made  by  nailing 
a  top-bar  of  the  usual  frame  on  top  of  a  board  that  will  just  fit 
in  the  hive,  and  reach  to  the  top  of  the  rabbet.  If  desired  the 
board  may  be  beveled  at  the  edges.  When  the  division-board 
is  inserted  in  the  hive  it  separates  the  brood-chamber  into  two 
parts  by  a  close  partition.  Many  bee-keepers  make  them  like 
a  close-fitting  frame  and  cover  with  cloth,  which  is  stuffed 
with  chaff.  Others  groove  the  edges  and  insert  a  strip  of  cloth 
or  rubber.  The  chaff  board  is  for  greater  warmth,  the  rubber 
to  make  the  board  fit  closely,  and  yet  give  enough  to  make  it 
easy  to  withdraw  the  division-board  when  it  swells  from 
dampness.  Mr.  Jones  prefers  that  the  division-board  should 
not  reach  quite  to  the  bottom  of  the  hive  (Fig.  88).  This  en- 
ables the  bees  to  pass  under,  and  as  heat  rises  there  is  very 
little  objection  to  this  bee-space  under  the  division-board. 

We  use  the  division-board  to  contract  the  chamber  in  winter, 
to  vary  it  so  as  to  keep  all  combs  covered  with  bees  in  spring,  to 
contract  the  brood-chamber  when  we  wish  to  secure  a  full 
force  of  bees  in  the  sections,  to  convert  our  hives  into  nucleus 
hives  for  queen-rearing,  and  in  case  we  secure  comb  honey  in 
two-story  hives,  which,  however,  we  do  not  practice  now,  to 
contract  the  upper  chamber  when  the  season  first  opens. 


OR,    MANUAI,   OF   THB   APIARY. 


CIX>TH   COVERS. 


After  the  season  is  over,  and  the  weather  becomes  cold, 
about  the  20th  of  September,  it  is  well  to  remove  the  honey- 
board,  and  to  cover  above  the  bees  with  a  piece  of  heavy  factory 
cloth,  which  thus  forms  the  immediate  cover  for  the  bees  in 
winter.  The  section-case  full  of  dry,  fine  sawdust  has  now 
this  cloth  for  its  bottom,  while  the  cover  of  the  hive  rests  on 
the  section-case. 

It  will  be  noted  that  I  have  made  no  mention  in  the  above 
of  metal  rabbets,  or,  more  correctly,  metal  supports.  I  have 
tried  these  for  some  years,  and  have  usually  recommended 
them,  but  for  the  past  several  years  I  have  omitted  them,  and 
think  I  shall  have  no  further  use  for  them  in  my  hives.  If  we 
wish  them  we  have  only  to  cut  the  rabbet  a  little  deeper  and 
tack  inside  the  hive,  just  below  the  rabbet,  a  narrow  strip  of 
heavy  tin,  which  shall  project  a  little  above  the  wooden  rabbet, 
just  enough  to  raise  the  top  of  the  frame  to  within  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch  of  the  top  of  the  hive.  The  advantages  of 
these  are  that  they  make  a  very  narrow  rest  or  support  for  the 
frames,  and  so  the  latter  are  more  easily  loosened,  and  in  care- 
less hands  are  less  apt  to  kill  bees  when  put  into  the  hives.  It 
is  always  easy,  however,  by  means  of  a  chisel  to  loosen  frames, 
and  if  we  are  often  manipulating  our  bees,  as  when  extracting 
in  summer,  the  frames  are  easily  loosened  without  the  metal 
supports.  Some  apiarists  make  hives  without  rabbets,  making 
the  frames  to  rest  on  the  top  of  the  hive.  I  have  tried  such 
hives  thoroughly,  and  wish  no  more  of  them.  Of  course,  with 
such  hives  the  valuable  honey-board  and  bee-spaces  are  im- 
possible. 

THE   NEW  HEDDON   HIVE. 

Mr.  Heddon  has  patented  and  offered  to  the  public  a  new 
hive  which  combines  in  principle  the  Langstroth  and  the 
Huber.  I  have  tried  this  hive  only  for  a  short  time,  and  so, 
guided  by  the  rule  I  have  always  adopted,  I  do  not  recommend 
it.  Yet  the  experienced  bee-keeper  can  often  judge  correctly 
of  what  he  has  never  tried,  and  I  will  add  that  I  fully  believe 
this  hive  and  the  method  Mr.  Heddon  gives  of  manipulation  in 
bis  valuable  book,  are  well  worth  our  attention.     Mr.  Heddon 


224  THE  bee-kbepbr's  guide; 

is  so  able  that  he  rarely  recommends  what  is  not  valuable. 
Several  others  have  tried  this  hive,  and  speak  in  the  highest 
terms  of  its  value.  Among  these  are  no  less  authorities  than 
R.  L/.  Taylor  and  W.  Z.  Hutchinson.  At  the  beginning  of  this 
chapter  I  caution  all  against  patent  hives.  This  is  necessary, 
as  so  many  frauds  have  been  committed  under  this  guise ;  but 
if  Mr.  Heddon  has  given  us  something  as  valuable  as  it  is 
unique  and  original,  he  well  deserves  a  patent,  which  should 
be  thoroughly  respected,  as  should  all  worthy  inventive  eflFort. 
From  my  brief  experience  I  fear  the  hive  is  too  complicated 
for  the  average  bee-keeper.  With  a  much  longer  experience 
(1900)  I  can  not  recommend  it.  It  works  admirably  if  every- 
thing is  perfectly  exact ;  otherwise  it  is  a  vexation.  Absolute 
exactness  is  rare  in  our  day  and  world. 

I  shall  describe  the  hive  only  in  brief,  advising  all  who 
wish  to  investigate  this  newcomer,  to  procure  Mr.  Heddon's 
work,  •*  Success  in  Bee-Culture,"  as  this  will  be  an  excellent 
investment  asidfe  from  the  matter  of  the  hive. 

This  hive  (Fig.  93)  has  close-fitting  frames  fastened  in  a 
case  by  use  of  wooden  thumb-screws.  The  end-bars  of  the 
frames  are  wide  like  those  of  the  Huber  hives,  and  rest  on  tin 
supports.  The  top  and  bottom  bars  of  the  hives  are  only  as 
wide  as  the  natural  comb,  seven-eighths  of  an  inch.  The 
frames  are  only  five  and  three-eighths  (5^)  inches  deep,  and 
this  with  the  wide  spaces  between  them  makes  it  possible  to  do 
much  without  removing  the  frames.  There  is  a  three-eighths 
inch  space  above  the  frames,  and  a  honey-board  as  in  the 
Heddon-Langstroth  hive. 

Thus,  one  or  two  shallow  hives  can  be  used,  and  to  con- 
tract the  brood-chamber  at  any  time  we  have  only  to  remove 
one  of  them.  Figure  93  shows  the  hive,  which,  with  two 
brood-chambers,  gives  about  the  capacity  of  a  10-frame  Lang- 
stjroth  hive.  As  all  frames  are  securely  held  by  the  screws, 
any  brood-chamber  can  be  reversed,  or  any  two  can  change 
places  at  the  pleasure  of  the  bee-keeper.  I  have  found  the 
screws  to  swell  and  work  with  extreme  difficulty.  I  think  Mr. 
Taylor  excludes  the  screws,  and  wedges  the  frames  instead. 
As  the  combs  will  all  be  firmly  attached  on  all  sides  to  the 
frames,  there  is  no  space  for  hiding,  and  the  queen  can  gen- 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF  THE   APIARY. 


225 


erally  be  found  without  removing  the  frames.  I  have  seen  Mr. 
Taylor  find  several  queens  with  these  hives  in  a  few  minutes 
time. 

Fig.  93. 


The  Xen  U,  I  m  ,  Hife  —From  James  Ueddoii. 


A  Stand. 
B  V  Two  sections. 


Z)  A' Sectioa-cases.  //Thumb-screw. 

..1/ Slatted  honey-board.       /-'Cover. 


226  TH^  bee-keepkr's  gotde; 

The  bottom-board  (Pig,  94)  has  a  raised  rim.  Thus  the 
frames  are  one-half  inch  from  the  bottom.  Of  course,  the 
bottom-board  is  loose.  Mr.  Heddon  recommends  single-story 
wide-frames  with  separators  for  the  sections.  These  are  also 
secured  by  the  screws,  and  so  any  frame  or  the  whole  case  can 
be  reversed  at  will. 

Of  course,  the  old  Heddon  case  without  separators  could  be 
used,  but  could  not  be  reversed.  The  points  of  excellence 
claimed  for  this  hive,  and  I  know  from  my  .experience  that 
they  are  real,  are  easy  contraction  of  brood-chamber,  quick 
inversion  of  the  brood-chamber  or  section-case,  ease  and  quick- 

FiG.  94. 


Heddon  Bottom-Board. — From  Jam.es  Heddon. 


ness  of  manipulation,  and  the  interchangeableness  of  the 
brood -chambers  forming  the  hive,  and  the  power  we  have  by 
quick  and  easy  contraction  of  the  brood-chamber  to  get  all 
light-colored  honey  in  the  sections  if  we  so  desire. 

Mr.  J.  M.  Shuck  has  also  patented  a  hive  for  which  he 
claims  the  same  advantages  gained  in  the  new  Heddon  hive.  I 
have  not  worked  with  it  enough  to  recommend  It.  I  fear  the 
hives  are  too  complex  for  the  general  bee-keeper.  The  fact, 
too,  that  perfection  of  work  and  measurements  despite  our  best 
care  are  very  rare,  urges  against  this  hive,  as  it  must  be  very 
accurate  or  it  is  a  sore  vexation.  I  advise  all  to  go  slow  in 
adopting  them,  as  we  know  the  old,  tried  ones  are  excellent.   I 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY. 


227 


fear  that  in  the  hands  of  the  general  bee-keepers  these  new 
hives  will  not  prove  satisfactory. 

THE  FRAMES. 

The  form  and  size  of  frames,  though  not  quite  as  various 
as  the  persons  who  use  them,  are  still  very  different  (Fig-.  95). 
Some  prefer  large  frames.  I  first  tried  the  Quinby  frame,  and 
afterward  the  Langstroth  (Fig.  95).     The  advantage  claimed 

Fig.  95. 


QUINBT. 


12 
Amkkican 


Lakostroth.     ^ 


ll>i 


Gallup.    C 

is: 


Adair.     ^ 


19H 
Closed  bkd  Quinbt. 


Brood- Frames. — From  A.  I.  Boot  Co. 


for  large  frames  is  that  there  are  less  to  handle,  and  time  is 
saved  ;  yet  may  not  smaller  frames  be  handled  so  much  more 
dextrously,  especially  if  they  are  to  be  handled  through  all  the 
long  day,  as  to  compensate,  in  part  at  least,  for  the  number  ? 
The  advantage  of  the  shallow  frame  is,  as  claimed,  that  the 
bees  will  go  into  boxes  more  readily  ;  yet  they  are  not  consid- 
ered by  some  bee-keepers  as  safe  for  out-door  wintering.  This 
is  the  style  recommended  and  used  by  Mr.  Langstroth,  which 
fact   may  account  for  its    popularity  in  the  United  States. 


228 


THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE  ; 


Another  frame  in  common  use,  is  one  about  one  foot  square.  I 
Jiave  long  used  one  llX  inches  square,  and  still  think  that  this 
frame  has  much  to  commend  it.  It  is  light,  easily  handled, 
convenient  for  nucleus  hives,  and  perhaps  the  best  form  for 
forming  a  compact  winter  cluster ;  and  yet  upon  mature  re- 
flection I  have  decided  to  use  in  future,  as  already  stated,  the 
Langstroth  frame,  and  advise  all  others  to  do  so. 

It  is  very  desirable  to  have  bees  in   hives  such  as  others 
will  wish  in  case  we  sell  bees,  as  every  bee-keeper  is  almost 

Fig.  96. 


Oallup  Frame. — Original. 


a  Top-bar. 
6,  b  Side-bars  or  uprights. 


c  Comb-guide, 
d  Bottom-bar. 


sure  to  do  more  or  less  each  year.  The  L^angstroth  hive  is  used 
much  more  generally  than  any  other,  and  that  it  is  excellent 
is  shown  in  the  fact  that  most  of  our  successful  bee-keepers, 
from  Canada  to  the  Gulf,  use  it,  and  I  am  free  to  say  that, 
taking  the  whole  country  through,  it  is  doubtful  if  a  better 
style  or  form  exists  than  the  regular  Langstroth.  The  chief 
objection  urged  against  its  use,  that  it  is  not  the  best  form 
to  secure  safe  wintering,  lacks  force  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
many  who  have  been  most  successful  use  this  frame.  Indeed, 
with  thorough  protection  this  frame  is  as  good  as  any,  and 
most  bee-keepers  are  learning  that  in  our  Northern  States  pro- 
tection is  absolutely  essential  to  success. 

That  we  shall  ever  have  a  uniform  frame  used  by  all  api- 
arists, though  exceedingly  desirable,  is  too  much  to  be  hoped. 
I  do  not  think  there  is  sufficient  advantage  in  any  form  to  war- 
rant us  in  holding  to  it,  if  by  yielding  we  could  secure  this 
uniformity.    Nor  do  I  think  the  form  and  size  so  material  as 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF   THE   APIARY.  229 

to  make  it  g-enerally  desirable  for  the  apiarist  to  change  all  his 
hives,  to  secure  a  different  style  of  frame. 

To  make  a  I^angstroth  frame  I  would  use  a  top-bar  {Fig, 
96) — the  fig-ure  illustrates  a  Gallup  frame  which  is  square,  and 
will  serve  to  make  this  explanation  clearer,  eighteen  and  seven- 
eighths  (ISJi)  inches  long,  seven-eighths  (%)  of  an  inch  wide, 
and  one-fourth  (X)  of  an  inch  thick.  The  end-bars  (Fig.  96, 
b,  b)  should  be  eight  and  five-eighths  (8^)  inches  long,  and  as 
wide  and  thick  as  the  top-bar.  The  top-bar  is  fastened  to  the 
end-bars,  as  shown  in   the  figure,  by  nailing  through  it  into 

Fig.  97. 


^^^^^^B^^^^=S!^BE 


BeoersibU  Franu,  Upper  one  hung  in  t?ie  Hive,  Lower  one  partly  reversed. 
— From  Tames  Heddon. 


the  ends  of  the  end-bars,  so  as  to  leave  the  top-bar  projecting 
three-fourths  (^)  of  an  inch.  The  bottom-bar  is  seventeen  and 
three-eighths  (17>^)  inches  long,  and  as  wide  and  thick  as  the 
other  parts — though  it  may  be  only  one-half  as  thick  if  pre- 
ferred. It  is  also  nailed  to  the  ends  of  the  end-bars,  so  that  it 
is  as  long  as  the  frame.  The  parts  when  made  at  the  factory 
are  often  dovetailed  so  as  to  be  more  securely  united. 

For  some  years  I  have  used  the  reversible  frame  (Fig.  97), 
which  has  valuable  features  which  would  warrant  its  use  were 


230  THE  bee-kebper's  guide; 

it  not  for  its  complexity.  With  this  frame  there  is  no  danger 
of  the  top-bar  sagging,  which  is  sure  to  enlarge  the  bee-space 
above  and  create  mischief,  and  by  inverting  we  secure  the  firm 
attachment  of  the  comb  to  the  frame  along  all  its  edges, 
and  it  helps  to  force  our  bees  into  the  sections,  simply 
by  inverting  the  combs.  This  may  not  always  succeed  with 
the  unskillful — some  bee-keepers  report  failure— and  it  re- 
quires some  time  and  attention.  Figure  97  shows  the  charac- 
ter of  the  reversible  frame  as  made  by  Mr.  Heddon,  and  which 
I  have  found  to  work  the  best  of  any  that  I  have  used.  As 
will  be  seen,  the  reversible  part  is  a  rectangle,  pivoted  in  the 
center  to  the  bottom  of  the  short  end-bars.  These  short  end- 
bars  at  the  top  come  within  one-fourth  (j^)  inch  of  the  side  of 
the  hive,  and  thin  a  little  as  they  run  down,  so  that  the  lower 
end  is  three-eighths  (fi)  of  an  inch  from  the  side  of  the  hive. 
The  bottom  of  the  frame,  indeed  all  below  the  short  end-bar, 
is  three-fourths  (%)  of  an  inch  from  the  side  of  the  hive.  This 
makes  it  easy  to  put  in  the  frames  without  crushing  the  bees. 
It  might  be  supposed  that  the  bees  would  build  combs  between 
the  lower  end  of  the  frame  and  the  hive,  but  I  have  never  seen 
a  case  of  the  kind,  and  I  have  used  such  frames  now  quite 
extensively  for  several  years.  These  frames  reverse  very 
easily,  and  I  do  not  know  a  single  person  who  has  thoroughly 
tried  them,  who  does  not  value  them  highly.  Here  again  let 
me  suggest  that  in  making  changes,  a  few  be  tried  first,  and 
not  all  till  we  know  we  wish  them. 

As  the  use  of  comb  foundation  secures  straight  combs, 
with  no  drone-cells,  it  is  very  desirable.  When  this  is  fastened 
by  merely  pressing  or  sticking  it  to  the  top-bar,  it  is  apt  to 
sag  and  warp,  hence  it  is  becoming  quite  the  custom  to  wire 
the  frames  (Fig.  97).  This  insures  perfect  safety  if  we  wish  to 
ship  our  bees,  and  secures  against  sagging  or  bulging  of  the 
foundation.  If  the  foundation  is  put  on  with  the  Given  press 
as  the  foundation  is  made,  No.  36  wire  is  used  ;  if  pressed  on 
by  hand  No.  30  wire  is  better. 

The  timber  for  frame  should  be  thoroughly  seasoned,  and 
of  the  best  pine  or  white  wood.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the 
frame  be  made  so  as  to  hang  vertically,  when   suspended  on 


OR,   MANUAL  OP  THa   APIARY.  231 

the  rabbets  of  the  hive.  To  secure  this  very  important  point- 
true  frames  that  will  always  hang  true— they  should  always 
be  made  around  a  guide. 

A   BLOCK   FOR    MAKING   FRAMES. 

This  may  be  made  as  follows  :  Take  a  rectangular  board 
(Fig.  98)  eleven  and  one-eighth  by  thirteen  and  a  quarter 
inches.  On  both  ends  of  one  face  of  this,  nail  hard-wood 
pieces  (Fig.  98,  <?,  e)  one  inch  square  and  ten  and  three-fourths 
inches  long,  so  that  one  end  (Fig.  98,  g,  g)  shall  lack  three- 
eighths  inch  of  reaching  the  edge  of  the  board.  On  the  other 
face  of  the  board,  nail  a  strip  (Fig.  98,  c)  four  inches  wide  and 
eleven  and  three-eighths  inches  long,  at  right  angles  to  it,  and 
in  such  position  that  the  ends  shall  just  reach  to  the  edges  of 


Block  for  maki7ig  Gallup  Frames. —Original. 

the  board.  Midway  between  the  one-inch-square  pieces,  screw 
on  another  hard-wood  strip  (Fig.  98,  d)  one  inch  square  and 
four  inches  long,  parallel  with  and  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
from  the  edge.  To  the  bottom  of  this,  screw  a  semi-oval  piece 
of  hoop-steel  (Fig.  98,  d,  b),  which  shall  bend  around  and  press 
against  the  square  strips.  The  ends  of  this  should  not  reach 
quite  to  the  bottom  of  the  board.  Near  the  ends  of  this  spring 
fasten,   by  rivets,  a  leather  strap  an   inch   wide  (Fig.  98,  c). 


232  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

which  shall  be  straight  when  thus  riveted.  These  dimensions 
are  for  frames  eleven  and  one-fourth  inches  square,  outside 
measure,  and  must  be  varied  for  other  sizes.  Instead  of  the 
iron  and  strap,  some  use  two  pieces  of  wood  with  a  central 
pivot.  The  upper  ends  of  these  levers  are  united  by  a  strong 
elastic  cord,  so  that  the  lower  ends  are  constantly  pressed 
against  the  side-pieces  of  the  block.  Recently  we  have  used 
in  such  blocks,  both  for  frame  and  section-making,  a  single 
hard-wood  strip,  a  little  shorter  than  the  distance  between  the 
strips  e  and  e.  This  is  pivoted  at  the  center  to  the  center  of 
the  block.  This  is  a  very  simple  way  to  hold  the  side-pieces 
firmly  against  the  strips  <?,  e.    We  have  only  to  turn  this  lever. 

To  use  this  block,  we  crowd  the  end-bars  of  our  frames 
between  the  steel  springs  (Fig.  98,  b,  b)  and  the  square  strips 
(Fig.  98,  <?,  e) ;  then  lay  on  our  top-bar  and  nail,  after  which  we 
invert  the  block  and  nail  the  bottom-bar,  as  we  did  the  top-bar. 
Now  press  down  on  the  strap  (Fig.  98,  a),  which  will  loosen 
the  frame,  when  it  may  be  removed  all  complete  and  true. 
Such  a  gauge  not  only  insures  perfect  frames,  but  demands 
that  every  piece  shall  be  cut  with  great  accuracy,  and  some 
such  arrangement  should  always  be  used  in  making  the 
frames. 

The  above  description  and  Fig.  98  are  for  Gallup  frames. 
For  Langstroth  frames  the  hard-wood  strips  would  be  eight 
and  five-eighths  (8)^)  inches  long,  and  the  distance  between 
them  would  be  sixteen  and  seven-eighths  (16^)  inches,  that  is, 
if  the  frames  are  made  of  pieces  one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick. 
To  make  reversible  frames  we  use  two  such  guides.  Wire  nails 
are  very  excellent  for  making  frames,  and  just  the  thing  for 
the  pivots  in  reversible  frames. 

When  the  frames  are  in  the  hive  there  should  be  at  least  a 
one-fourth  or  three-eighths  inch  space  between  the  end  of  the 
frame  and  side  of  the  hive.  As  before  stated,  the  space  below 
the  frame  may  be  one-half  inch.  A  much  wider  space  on  the 
sides  than  that  given  above  is  likely  to  be  filled  with  comb, 
and  so  prove  vexatious.  The  wide  space  below  gives  no  such 
trouble,  and  in  winter  it  is  desirable,  as  also  in  case  the  hive 
shrinks.  It  is  very  undesirable  to  have  the  frames  reach  to 
the  bottom  of  the  hive. 


OR,   MANUAI,  OP  THE  AtlARY. 


233 


The  distance  between  the  frames  maybe  one-half  of  an 
inch,  or  best  one  and  three-eighths  inches  from  center  to  cen- 
ter of  the  frames.  This  is  better  than  one  and  one-half,  as 
the  brood  is  kept  warmer,  and  worker-brood  is  more  likely  to 
be  reared.  A  slight  variation  either  way  does  no  harm.  Some 
men,  of  very  precise  habits,  prefer  nails  or  wire  staples  in  the 
side  and  bottom  of  the  frames.  Mr.  Cheshire  calls  these  his 
suggestions,  though  Mr.  Langstroth  used  them  over  twenty 
years  ago,  which,  if  I  am  correctly  informed,  was  before  Mr. 
Cheshire  kept  bees  at  all.  These  are  to  insure  equal  spacing 
of  the  frames.  Mr.  Jones  prolongs  the  sides  and  bottom  of 
the  frame  (Fig.  88)  for  the  same  purpose.  These  projections 
extend  just  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  so  as  to  maintain  this  un- 
varying distance.  Some  bee-keepers  use  frames  with  wide, 
close-fitting  end-bars,  or  with   top-bars  wide  and  close-fitting 

Fig.  99. 


Hoffman  Frames.— From  A.  I.  Hoot  Co. 


at  the  ends.  Mr.  Root  now  favors  the  Hoffman  frame  (Fig. 
99),  as  he  calls  it,  which  has  the  top-bar  and  upper  ends  of  the 
end-bars  wide  and  close-fitting.  He  claims  more  rapid  hand- 
ling, as  the  frames,  he  says,  can  be  handled  in  groups.  I 
have  tried  all  these  styles,  and  do  not  like  them.  It  is  easy  for 
any  bee-keeper  to  try  them.  "  Prove  all  things  ;  hold  fast 
that  which  is  good,"  or  that  which  pleases  you. 

COVER   FOR   FRAMES. 

As  before  stated,  a  board  covers  the  hive  all  through  the 
honey  season.  This  rests  upon  the  upper  story  of  the  hive,  or 
upon  the  upper  section-case.     From  September  to  June,  in  the 


234  THE  bee-keeper's  guid^  ; 

cold  Northern  climate,  a  piece  of  thick  factory  cloth  should 
rest  on  the  frames  as  before  stated.  This  is  just  the  size  of 
the  hive,  and  when  properly  adjusted  no  bee  can  pass  above  it. 
By  cutting-  on  three  sides  of  an  inch  square,  we  form  a  flap  in 
this  cloth  which  may  be  turned  back  to  permit  the  bees  to  enter 
the  feeder,  when  feeding  is  desired.  In  fall,  winter  and  spring, 
a  section-case  left  on  the  hive  and  filled  with  fine  sawdust  or 
chaff  is  a  most  desirable  substitute  for  a  heavy,  awkward  chaff 
hive.     Dr.  Miller  covers  the  year  through  with  a  cloth  cover. 

THE  HUBER   HIVE. 

The  other  type  of  hives  originated  when  Huber  hinged 
several  of  his  leaf  or  unicomb  hives  together  so  that  the  frames 
would  open  like  the  leaves  of  a  book.  In  August,  1779,  Huber 
wrote  to  Bonnet  as  follows  :  "  I  took  several  small  fir-boxes,  a 
foot  square  and  fifteen  lines  wide,  and  joined  them  togther 
by  hinges,  so  that  they  could  be  opened  and  shut  like  the 
leaves  of  a  book.  "When  using  a  hive  of  this  description,  we 
took  care  to  fix  a  comb  in  each  frame,  and  then  introduced  all 
the  bees."  (Edinburgh  edition  of  Huber,  p.  4.)  Although 
Morlot  and  others  attempted  to  improve  the  hive,  it  never 
gained  favor  with  practical  apiarists. 

In  1866,  Mr.  T.  F.  Bingham,  then  of  New  York,  improved 
upon  the  Huber  hive,  securing  a  patent  on  his  triangular-frame 
hive.  This,  so  far  as  I  can  judge,  was  the  Huber  hive  made 
practical.  Mr.  Bingham  now  uses  a  modification  of  this  hive 
(Fig.  101). 

In  1868,  Mr.  M.  S.  Snow,  then  of  New  York,  now  of  Minne- 
sota, procured  a  patent  on  his  hive,  which  was  essentially  the 
same  as  the  hives  now  known  as  the  Quinby  and  Bingham 
hives. 

Soon  after,  the  late  Mr.  Quinby  brought  forth  his  hive, 
which  is  essentially  the  same  as  the  above,  only  differing  in 
details.  No  patent  was  obtained  by  Mr.  Quinby,  whose  great 
heart  and  boundless  generosity  endeared  him  to  all  acquaint- 
ances. Those  who  knew  him  best  never  tire  of  praising  the 
unselfish  acts  and  life  of  this  noble  man.  If  we  except  Mr. 
I^angstroth,  no  other  man,  especially  in  the  early  days,  did  so 
much  to  promote  the  interest  and  growth  of  improved  apicul- 


OR,    MANUAI,   OF   THB   APIARY. 


235 


ture  in  the  United  States.  His  hive,  his  book,  his  views  of  win- 
tering, and  foul  brood,  his  introduction  of  the  bellows-smoker— 
a  gift  to  apiarists— all  speak  his  praise  as  a  man  and  an  api- 
arist. 

The  facts  that  the  Bingham  hive,  as  now  made,  is  a  great 
favorite  with  those  that  have  used  it,  that  Mr.  Quia  by  pre- 
ferred this  style  or  type  of  hive,  that  the  Quinby  form  is  used 
by  the  Hetherington  brothers— Capt.  J.  E.,  the  prince  of  Ameri- 
can apiarists,  with  his  thousands  of  colonies,  and  O.  J.,  whose 
neatness,  precision,  and  mechanical  skill  are  enough  to 
awaken  envy— are  surely  sufficient  to  excite  curiosity  and  be- 
speak a  description. 

The  Quinby  hive  (Fig.  100)  as  used  by  the  Hetherington 
brothers,  consists  of  a  series  of  rectangular  frames  (Fig.  100) 
Fig.  100. 


Frame,  Bottom- Board  and  Frame- Support,  of  Quinby  ffiue.— Original 


twelve  by  seventeen  inches,  outside  measure.  The  end-bars 
of  these  frames  are  one  and  one-half  inches  wide,  and  half  an 
inch  thick.  The  top  and  bottom  one  inch  wide  and  half  an 
inch  thick.  The  outer  halves  of  the  end-bar  project  one-fourth 
of  an  inch  beyond  the  top  and  bottom  bars.  This  projection 
is  lined  on  the  inside  with  sheet-iron,  which  is  inserted  in  a 
groove  which  runs  one  inch  into  each  end  of  the  end-pieces, 
and  is  tacked  by  the  same  nails  that  fasten  the  end-bars  to  the 
top  and  bottom  bars.  This  iron  at  the  end  of  the  bar  bends  in 
at  right-angles  (Fig.  100,  a),  and  extends  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
parallel  with  the  top  and  bottom  bars.    Thus,  when  these 


236  THE  bee-kbeper's  Gxm>E; 

frames  stand  side  by  side,  the  ends  are  close,  while  half -inch 
openings  extend  between  the  top  and  bottom  bars  of  adjacent 
frames.  The  bottom-bars,  too,  are  one-fourth  of  an  inch  from 
the  bottom-board.  Tacked  to  the  bottom-board,  in  line  with 
the  position  of  the  back  end-bars  of  the  frames,  is  an  inch 
strip  of  sheet-iron  (Fig.  100,  b,  b)  sixteen  inches  in  length. 
One-third  of  this  strip,  from  the  front  edge  back,  is  bent  over 
so  it  lies  not  quite  in  contact  with  the  second  third,  while  the 
posterior  third  receives  the  tacks  which  hold  it  to  the  bottom- 
board.  Now,  when  in  use,  this  iron  flange  receives  the  hooks 
on  the  corners  of  the  frames,  so  that  the  frames  are  held 
firmly,  and  can  be  moved  only  back  and  sidewise.  In  looking 
at  the  bees  we  can  separate  the  combs  at  once,  at  any  place. 
The  chamber  can  be  enlarged  or  diminished  simply  by  adding 
or  withdrawing  frames.  As  the  hooks  are  on  all  four  corners 
of  the  frames,  the  frames  can  be  either  end  back,  or  either  side 
up.  This  arrangement,  which  permits  the  inversion  of  the 
frames,  is  greatly  praised  by  those  who  have  tried  it.  It  was 
claimed  by  the  Hetheringtons  years  ago  that  by  turning  these 
frames  bottom  up  the  comb  would  be  fastened  above  and 
below,  and  the  bees,  in  their  haste  to  carry  the  honey  from  the 
bottom  of  the  frames,  would  rush  at  once  into  the  sections. 
Boards  with  iron  hooks  close  the  side  of  the  brood  cavity, 
while  a  cloth  covers  the  frames. 

The  entrance  (Fig.  100,  e)  is  cut  in  the  bottom-board,  as 
already  explained,  except  that  the  lateral  edges  are  kept 
parallel.  A  strip  of  sheet-iron  (Fig.  100,  d)  is  tacked  across 
this,  on  which  rest  the  ends  of  the  front  end-bars  of  the  frames 
which  stand  above,  and  underneath  which  pass  the  bees  as 
they  come  to  and  go  from  the  hive.  A  box,  without  bottom 
and  with  movable  top,  covers  all,  leaving  a  space  from  four 
to  six  inches  above  and  on  all  sides  between  it  and  the  frames. 
This  gives  chance  to  pack  with  chaff  in  winter,  and  for  side 
and  top  storing  in  sections  in  summer. 

The  Bingham  hive  (Fig.  101)  is  not  only  remarkably  sim- 
ple, but  is  as  remarkable  for  its  shallow  depth,  the  frames 
being  only  five  inches  high.  These  have  no  bottom-bar.  The 
end-bars  are  one  and  a  half  inches  wide,  and  the  top-bar 
square.     The  nails  that  hold  the  end-bars  pass  into  the  end  of 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THE   APIARY.  237 

the  top-bar,  which  is  usually  placed  diagonally,  so  that  an 
edge,  not  a  face,  is  below  ;  though  some  are  made  with  a  face 
below  (Fig.  101,  /"),  to  be  used  when  comb  is  transferred.  The 
frames  are  held  together  by  two  wires,  one  at  each  end.  Each 
wire  (Fig.  101,  a)  is  a  little  longer  than  twice  the  width  of  the 
hive  when  the  maximum  number  of  frames  are  used.  The 
ends  of  each  wire  are  united  and  placed  about  nails  (Fig.  101, 
b,b)  in  the  ends  of  the  boards  (Fig.  101  c,c)  which  form  the  sides 
of  the  brood-chamber.  A  small  stick  (Fig.  101,  o)  spreads 
Fig.  101. 


Frames  and  Bottom- Board  of  the  Bingham  Rive.— From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 


these  wires,  and  brings  the  frames  close  together.  A  box 
without  bottom  and  with  movable  cover,  is  placed  about  the 
frames.  This  is  large  and  high  enough  to  permit  of  chaff 
packing  in  winter  and  spring.  The  bottom-board  may  be 
made  like  the  one  already  described.  Mr.  Bingham  does  not 
bevel  the  bottom-board,  but  places  lath  under  three  sides  of 
the  brood-chamber,  the  lath  being  nailed  to  the  bottom-board. 
He  uses  the  Langstroth  blocks  to  contract  the  entrance  (Fig. 
101,  g). 

The  advantages  of  this  hive  are  simplicity,  great  space 
above  for  surplus  frames  or  boxes,  capability  of  being  placed 
one  hive  above  another  to  any  height  desired,  while  the  frames 
may  be  reversed,  end  for  end,  or  bottom  for  top,  or  the  whole 
brood-chamber  turned  upside  down.  Thus,  by  doubling,  we 
may  have  a  depth  of  ten  inches  for  winter.  It  will  be  seen  at 
once  that  this  hive  possesses  all  the  advantages  claimed  for 
the  new  Heddon  and  Shuck  hives,  except  the  frames  are  not 
held  so  securely.  Yet  it  is  far  more  simple,  which  is  greatly 
in  its  favor. 


238  THE  bek-keeper's  guide; 

The  objections  which  I  have  found  in  the  use  of  such  hives 
are  the  fact  that  so  few  use  them,  and  dang-er  of  killing  bees 
in  rapid  handling.  They  can  be  manipulated  with  rapidity  if 
we  care  not  how  many  bees  we  crush.  It  hurts  me  to  kill  a 
bee,  and  so  I  find  the  Langstroth  style  more  quickly  manipu- 
lated. Mr.  Snow,  too,  who  was  the  first  to  make  the  above 
style  of  hive,  has  discarded  it  in  favor  of  the  Langstroth.  His 
objection  to  the  above,  is  the  fact  that  the  various  combs  are 
not  sure  to  be  so  built  as  to  be  interchangeable.  Yet  that  such 
apiarists  as  those  above  named  prefer  these  Huber  hives,  after 
long  use  of  the  other  style,  is  certainly  not  without  significance. 

OBSERVATORY   HIVE. 

To  study  bees  while  they  are  at  work,  requires  a  hive  so 
constructed  that  we  can  look  in  upon  all  the  bees  of  the  hive 

Fig.  102. 


Observatory  Hive.— Original. 


at  pleasure.  For  this  purpose  I  have  used  a  small  Langstroth 
hive  (Fig.  102)  containing  one  frame.  Glass  is  used  each  side 
of  the  frame,  and  this  is  shaded  by  doors  hung  on  hinges.  We 
are  able  to  look  at  the  bees  or  make  all  dark  inside  at  pleasure. 
To  prevent  the  hive  from  becoming  too  crowded,  we  must  every 
twenty-three  or    twenty-four  days  shake  the   bees  from  the 


OR,  MANUAL  OF  THE   APIARY.  239 

frame,  and  replace  the  latter  with  another  frame,  which  shall 
contain  no  brood.  From  such  a  hive,  in  my  study  window,  I 
have  received  much  pleasure  and  information. 

APPARATUS  FOR   PROCURING   COMB   HONKY. 

Although  I  feel  sure  that  extracted  honey  will  g-row  more 
and  more  in  favor,  yet  it  will  never  supersede  the  beautiful 
comb,  which,  from  its  exquisite  flavor  and  attractive  appear- 
ance, has  always  been,  and  always  will  be,  admired  and 
desired.  So,  no  hive  is  complete  without  its  arrangement  of 
section  frames  and  cases,  all  constructed  with  the  view  of 
securing  this  delectable  comb  honey  in  the  form  that  will  be 
most  tempting  to  the  eye  and  palate. 

SURPLUS  COMB   HONEY  IN  SECTIONS. 

Honey  in  several-pound  boxes  is  no  longer  marketable, 
and  is  now  almost  wholly  replaced  by  comb  honey  in  sections. 
In  fact,  there  is  no  apparatus  for  securing  comb  honey  that 
promises  so  well  as  these  sections.  That  they  are  just  the 
thing  to  enable  us  to  tickle  the  market  is  shown  by  their  rapid 
growth  in  popular  favor.  Some  years  ago  I  predicted,  at  one 
of  our  State  conventions,  that  they  would  soon  replace  boxes, 
and  was  laughed  at.  Nearly  all  who  then  laughed,  now  use 
these  sections.  They  are  cheap,  and  with  their  use  we  can  get 
more  honey,  and  in  a  form  that  will  make  it  irresistible. 

The  wood  should  be  white,  the  size  small — two-pound  sec- 
tions are  as  large  as  the  market  will  tolerate.  One-pound 
sections  are  more  salable,  and  in  some  markets  even  one-half 
pound  sections  are  best  of  all.  Of  late,  Mr.  W.  Harmer,  of 
Manistee,  Mich.,  is  making  and  using  successfully  a  two- 
ounce  section.  This  is  very  neat  and  cheap.  It  is  made  of  a 
shaving,  and  is  glued.  Such  sections  would  be  the  thing  to 
sell  at  fairs.  The  size  of  the  sections  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  amount  of  honey  secured,  and  so  the  market  and  extra  cost 
should  guide  the  apiarist  in  this  matter. 

As  early  as  1877  I  used  veneer  sections,  which  were  essen- 
tially the  same  as  the  one-piece  sections  now  so  popular. 
After  this  I  used  nailed  sections.  At  present  only  the  very 
neatest  sections  can  catch  the  market,  and  so  we  must  buy  our 


240 


THE  BEE-KKBPER'S  GUIDE; 


sections  of  those  who  can  make  them  by  machinery  neater  and 
cheaper  than  we  possibly  can  by  hand. 

Dr.  C.  C.  Miller,  James  Heddon,  and  many  others,  prefer 
sections  made  as  are  children's  toy  blocks — the  sides  fastened 
by  a  sort  of  mortise  and  tenon  arrangement  (Fig-.  103).  These 
are  preferred,  as  they  do   not   have  the   shoulder  of  the  one- 

FiG.  103. 


Dovetailed  Sectio7i. — From  A.  I.  Hoot  Co. 

piece  section.  They  are  objected  to  from  the  longer  time  re- 
quired to  put  the  pieces  together,  and  their  lack  of  rigidity 
when  together,  so  that  they  are  likely  to  get  out  of  shape. 

The  Wheeler  section — invented  and  patented  by  Mr.  Geo. 
T.  Wheeler,  of  Mexico,  N.  Y.,  in  1870— is  remarkable  for  being 

Fig.  104. 


J tzrdl 


One-Pound  Section. — From  A.  I.  Boot  Co. 
Fig.  105. 


1=1 


^ 


Prize  Section.— From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 


the  first  to  be  used  with  tin  separators.  Instead  of  making  the 
bottoms  narrower  for  a  passage,  Mr.  Wheeler  made  an  open- 
ing in  the  bottom. 

Another  style  of  section,  termed  the  one-piece  section  (Fig. 
104),  is,  as  its  name  implies,  made  of  a  single  piece  of  wood, 


OR,    MANUAL  OF  THE   APIARY.  241 

with  three  cross  cuts  so  that  it  can  be  easily  bent  into  a  square. 
The  fourth  angle  unites  by  notches  and  projections,  as  before 
described.  These  one-piece  sections  are  now,  I  think,  the 
favorites  among  bee-keepers,  I  prefer  these  to  the  dovetailed. 
They  are  quickly  and  safely  bent,  if  dampened  slightly  before 
bending,  and  are  firm  when  in  shape  for  use.  Dr.  Miller  wets 
these  quickly  by  pouring  hot  water  at  the  to  be  corners  while 
they  are  yet  in  the  package.  They  must  be  even  in  the  pack. 
If,  as  argued  by  Messrs.  Dadant,  Foster  and  Tinker,  the  sec- 
tions open  on  all  sides  are  superior,  then  we  must  perforce  use 
these  one-piece  sections,  rather  than  the  dovetailed. 

This  last  desirable  feature  is  best  secured  in  the  plain 
section  (Fig.  106),  so-called  in  distinction   from  the   bee-space 

Fig.  106. 


Plain  Heciiotis  i7i  Super,  Showing  Frame- Holders  and  Fence. 
— From  A.  I.  Hoot  Vo. 

or  bee-way  sections  just  described.  These  are  like  the  ends  of 
the  one-piece  section  all  around  (Fig.  106) ;  that  is,  the  bottom 
and  top  are  not  cut  out  to  form  bee-spaces.  These  plain  sec- 
tions give  free  communication,  and  thus  are  more  readily 
filled,  and  as  the  honey  projects  to  the  very  edge  they  look 
neater  (Fig.  108).  Of  course,  there  is  less  wood  than  in  the 
bee-space  sections,  and  all  edges  are  even.  They  are  more 
easily  and  quickly  scraped  to  remove  propolis,  etc.    They  are 


242 


THE  bee-keeper's  guide  ; 


rapidly  growing  in  favor.     These  are  used  with  "fences,"  to 
be  described,  and  in  the  ordinary  supers  (Fig.  106). 

Heretofore  there  have  been  two  prevailing  sizes  of  sec- 
tions in  use  in  the  United  States — the  prize  section  (Fig.  105), 
which  is  five  and  one-fourth  by  six  and  one-fourth  inches,  and 
the  one-pound  section  (Fig.  104),  which  is  four  and  one-fourth 
inches  square.     The  latter  is  coming  rapidly  to  the  front,  as 

Fig.  107. 


Plain  Sections  in  Super,  Showing  Fence. — From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 


honey  in  it  sells  more  readily  than  if  in  a  larger  section.  Even 
half-pound  sections  have  taken  the  lead  in  the  Boston  and 
Chicago  markets.  It  is  barely  possible  that  these  small  sections 
will  rule  generally  in  the  markets  of  the  future.  They  would 
often  sell  more  readily,  and  are  far  better  to  ship,  as  the  combs 
will  seldom  if  ever  break  from  the  sections.  If,  in  arranging 
our  sections,  we  desire  to  have  them  oblong,  we  would  better 
make  them  so  that  they  will  be  longest  up  and  down.  Mr.  D. 
A.  Jones  finds  that  if  so  made  they  are  filled  and  capped  much 
sooner  (Fig.  108).  Captain  J.  E.  Hetherington  prefers  the 
oblong  section,  being  one  which  is  three  and  seven-eighths  by 
five  inches.  Mr.  Danzenbaker  uses  one  which  is  four  by  five 
inches.  He  thinks  honey  in  such  sections  (Fig.  108)  sells  for  a 
higher  price.  In  the  depth  of  the  section,  which  fixes  the 
thickness  of  the  comb,  a  change  from  the  common  style  seems 
to  be  desirable.  Heretofore  they  have  been  generally  made 
two  inches  deep.  With  such  sections  we  must  use  separators 
to  secure  perfect  combs.  Dr.  Miller  uses  separators,  and  pre- 
fers a  depth  of  one  and  five-sevenths,  or  two  inches.  By 
reducing  the  depth  to  from  one  and  three-eighths  to  one  and 


OR,  MAKUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY. 


243 


three-fourths  inches,  the  expense  of  separators  is  found  by 
some  to  be  unnecessary.  In  feeding^  back  to  have  sections 
completed,  or  where  each  section  is  removed  as  soon  as  capped, 
separators  are  indispensable.  While  I  have  never  succeeded 
satisfactorily  without  separators— as  the  sections  of  comb 
would  not  be  regular  enough  to  ship  well — yet  I  prefer  the 
depth  of  my  sections  to  be  one  and  five-sevenths  inches,  or 
seven  to  the  foot.  These  hold  about  three- fourths  of  a  pound. 
I  now  believe  that  the  best  section  for  to-day  is  one  four  and 
one-quarter  inches  square  and  one  and  five-sevenths  inches  in 

Fig.  108. 


Gbhng  and  Square  Sections.— From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 


depth.  We  secure  nicer  comb  for  the  table,  with  the  thinner 
combs,  and  more  bees  are  able  to  work  on  a  super  or  frame  of 
sections,  so  that  the  foundation  is  more  speedily  drawn  out. 
While  a  little  more  honey  might  be  secured  in  two-pound  sec- 
tions, the  market  would,  I  think,  make  their  use  undesirable. 
Of  course,  any  decided  change  in  the  form  and  size  of  our  sec- 
tions involves  no  small  expense,  as  it  requires  that  the  supers 


244 


THB  BEE-KEEPBR  S  GUIDE; 


or  frames  for  holding  the  sections  should  also  be  changed. 
Often,  however,  by  a  little  planning  we  can  vary  the  form  so 
as  to  reduce  the  size,  without  necessitating  this  .expense. 

HOW   TO  PLACE   SECTIONS  IN   POSITION. 

There  are  two  methods,  each  of  which  is  excellent,  and 
has,  as  it  well  may,  earnest  advocates — one  by  use  of  frames, 
the  other  by  supers. 

SECTIONS  IN   FRAMES. 

Frames  for  holding  sections  (Fig.  109)  are  made  the  same 
size  as  the  frames  in   the  brood-chamber.     The  depth  of  the 

Fig.  109. 


Gallup  Section-Frame. — Original. 


frame,  however,  is  the  same  as  the  depth  of  the  sections.  The 
bottom-bar  is  three-eighths  of  an  inch  narrower  than  the 
remainder  of  the  frame,  so  that  when  two  frames  are  side  by 
side,  there  is  three-eighths  of  an  inch  space  between  the  bot- 
tom-bars, though  the  top  and  side  pieces  are  close  together. 
In  case  sections  are  used  that  are  open  on  all  sides,  then  the 
ends  of  the  section-frames  must  also  be  narrow.  I  should  fear 
such  an  arrangement  would  be  objectionable  from  the  amount 
of  propolis  that  would  be  used  by  the  bees  to  make  all  secure, 


OS,   MANUAL,  OF  THB   APIARY. 


245 


The  sections  are  of  such  a  size  (Fig.  110)  that  four,  six  or 
nine,  etc.,  will  just  fill  one  of  the  large  frames.  Nailed  to  one 
side  of  each  large  frame  are  two  tin,  or  thin  wooden,  strips 
(Fig.  110,  t,  t)  in  case  separators  are  to  be  used,  as  long  as  the 
frame,  and  as  wide  into  one  inch  as  are  the  sections.  These 
are  tacked  half  an  inch   from  the  top  and  the  bottom  of  the 

Fig.  110. 


Oallup  Fraine  with  Sections. — Original. 


large  frames,  and  so  are  opposite  the  sections,  thus  permitting 
the  bees  to  pass  readily  from  one  tier  of  sections  to  another, 
as  do  the  narrower  top  and  bottom  bars  of  the  sections,  from 
those  below  to  those  above.  Captain  Hetherington  tells  me 
that  Mr.  Quinby  used  these  many  years  ago.  It  is  more 
trouble  to  make  these  frames  if  we  have  the  tins  set  in  so  as 
just  to  come  flush  with  the  edge  of  the  end-bars  of  the  frames, 
but  then  the  frames  would  hang  close  together,  and  would  not 
be  so  stuck  together  with  propolis.  These  may  be  hung  in  the 
second  story  of  a  two-story  hive,  and  just  enough  to  fill  the 
same — my  hives  will  take  nine — or  they  can  be  put  below, 
beside  the  brood-combs.  Mr.  Doolittle,  in  case  he  hangs  these 
below,  inserts  a  perforated  division-board,  so  that  the  queen 
will  not  enter  the  sections  and  lay  eggs. 


246 


iHH  bbk-kbeper's  guide  ; 


The  perforated-zinc  division-board  (Fig.  92)  would  serve 
admirably  for  this  purpose.  A  honey-board  (Fig.  91)  of  the 
same  material  keeps  sections,  either  in  supers  or  frames,  that 
are  above  the  hive,  neat,  and  also  keeps  the  queen  from  enter- 
ing them.     The  workers  enter  just  as  freely. 

In  long  hives,  the ''New  Idea" — which,  though  I  would 
not  use,  nor  advise  any  one  else  to  use,  I  have  found  quite  sat- 
isfactory, after  several  years'  trial,  especially  for  extracted 
honey — I  have  used  these  frames  of  sections,  and  with  good 
success.  The  Italians  enter  them  at  once,  and  fill  them  even 
more  quickly  than  other  bees  fill  the  sections  in  the  upper 
story.  In  fact,  one  great  advantage  of  these  sections  in  the 
frames  is  the  obvious   and   ample  passageways,  inviting  the 

Fig.  111. 


Langstroth  Frame  with  One-Pound  Sections. — From  A .  I.  Root  Co. 


bees  to  enter  them.  But  in  our  desire  to  make  ample  and  invit- 
ing openings,  caution  is  required  that  we  do  not  overdo  the 
matter,  and  invite  the  queen  to  injurious  intrusion.  So  we 
have  Charybdis  and  Scylla,  and  must,  by  study,  learn  so  to 
steer  between  as  to  avoid  both  dangers. 

Mr.  Jones  finds  that  by  using  the  division-board  made  of 
perforated-zinc  (Fig  92),  the  queen  is  kept  from  the  sections, 
and  they  can  be  safely  placed  in  one  end  of  the  body  of  the 
hive. 

Figure  111  shows  a  Langstroth  frame  full  of  one-pound 
sections.  As  already  stated,  Mr.  Heddon  recommends  the  use 
of  one-story  wide-frames,  with  separators,  and  so  made  as  to 
admit  of  inversion  (Fig.  93).  At  first  I  used  these  deep  frames 
exclusively.  The  great  objection  to  them  is  the  daubing  with 
propolis,  and  diflSculty  of  removing  the  sections  from  the  wide 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THE   APIARY. 


247 


frames.    This  has  led  me  to  replace  the  -wide  frames  by  the 
more  convenient  and  desirable  section-case  or  crate. 


CRATES  OR   RACKS. 


These  (Fig.  112)  are  to  be  used  in  lieu  of  large  frames,  to 
hold  sections,  and  are  very  convenient,  as  we  can  use  one  tier 
Fig.  112. 


Crate  for  Sections. — Ori^nal. 

at  first,  and  as  the   harvest   advances   tier  up,  or  "  storify,"  as 
our  British  friends  would  say,  until  we  may  use  three,  or  even 

Fig.  113. 


X  Siqxr.—From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 

four,  tiers  of  sections  on  a  single   hive.     I  think   this  far  the 
best  arrangement  for  securing  comb  honey. 

Southard  and  Ranney,  of  Kalamazoo,  have  long  used  a 
very  neat  rack,  as  seen  in  Fig.  112. 


248 


THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  Heddon  case  (Fig-.  93),  already 
described  (pag^e  225)  as  a  part  of  the  Heddon-Langstroth  hive, 
is  only  a  modification  of  the  Southard  crate.  This  crate  does 
not  permit  the  use  of  separators. 

The  case  or  super  preferred  and  used  by  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller 
(Fig.  113)  is  one  with  j.  shaped  tin  supports,  on  which  rest  the 
sections.  This  is  just  like  the  Heddon  case,  except  the  parti- 
tions are  omitted.  Projecting  tin  strips  are  tacked  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  sides  as  well  as  ends.  These  strips  on  the  ends 
help  hold  the  end  rows  of  sections,  while  those  on  the  sides 
hold  the  X  shaped  tins,  which  in  turn  support  the  sections.  As 
the  vertical  part  of  the  J.  supports  the  separator,  it  should  not 
be  more  than  one-half  inch  high.  As  most  of  us  use — must 
use — separators,  this  is  probably  one  of  the  best  section-honey 

Fig.  114. 


Hilton  T  Huper. — From  A.  I.  Root  Co, 


cases  for  us,  and  so  one  of  the  best  arrangements  for  securing 
comb  honey.  Mr.  Hilton  (Fig.  114),  of  Michigan,  does  not  like 
the  movable  j.  supports,  and  so  he  omits  the  projecting  tin 
pieces,  and  tacks  the  j.  tins  at  the  ends  to  the  bottom  of  the 
side  of  the  case. 

Mr.  Heddon  has  a  case  (Fig.  93)  which  permits  inversion, 
through  the  use  of  wide  frames  and  thumb-screws.  Still 
another  method  to  support  sections  (Fig.  115)  has  many  advo- 
cates. The  case  is  like  the  one  used  with  the  x  tins,  but  has 
projecting  tin  supports  tacked  to  the  ends  only.     On  these  rest 


OF,    MANUAI.  OF  THB  APIARY. 


249 


plain  frames  with  no  top-bar  (Fig-.  115),  which  in  turn  support 
the  sections.  If  bee-space  sections  are  used,  then  the  bottom- 
bar  of  these  frame-supports,  must  have  bee-ways  or  spaces  cut 

Fig.  115. 


Dovetailed  Super  with  Frames  and  Section-holders. — From  A.  I.  JRoot  Co, 

D  Wooden  Separator. 

E  Sections  with  Foundation  Starters. 

in  them.  These  are  also  used  to  hold  the  plain  sections  (Fig'. 
106),  in  which  case,  as  the  fence  (Fig.  116)  always  used  with 
these  sections  furnishes  a  bee-way,  the  frames,  like  the  sec- 
tions, are  entirely  plain.  Of  course,  separators  can  be  used 
with  these  supports,  in  case  we  use  the  bee-space  sections. 

Fig.  116. 


Felice  for  Plain  HccUoiis.— From  A.  J.  Hoot  Co. 


FENCES. 
The  fence  is  simply  a  slatted  separator  made  by  nailing 
three  boards  (Fig.  116)  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  apart  to  end 
posts,  which  project  three-eighths  of  an  inch  below  the  lowest 


250  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

board  ;  cross-pieces  of  the  same  thickness  as  the  corner  posts, 
three-sixteenths  of  an  inch,  are  like  the  corner  posts  nailed  on 
each  side  connecting  the  boards  of  the  fence.  They  do  not 
reach  below  the  lowest  board.  Thus,  these  fences  permit  very 
free  communication  (Figs.  106,  107).  The  whole  distance  at 
the  bottom  of  the  sections  has  a  wide  bee-way  which  also 
reaches  part  way  up  the  ends.  Of  course,  the  cross-pieces  are 
exactly  opposite  the  ends  of  the  sections  which  they  separate. 
As  these  separators  have  spaces,  they  give  ample  connection 
between  sections,  and  favor  rapid  comb-building  and  honey- 
storing.  Fences  are  also  placed  outside  the  last  row  of  sec- 
tions. They  secure  added  warmth  by  the  double  wall  of  bees, 
and  so  better  filled  sections.  No  wonder  that  these  plain  sec- 
tions and  fences  are  rapidly  coming  into  use.  Their  use,  of 
course,  necessitates  the  use  of  cases  with  frames  having  no 
top-bars  to  hold  the  sections  and  fences  (Fig.  106). 

If  we  discard  separators  the  old  Heddon  case  is  excellent ; 
if  we  must  use  separators  then  the  case  with  ±  shaped  tin 
supports  is  perhaps  the  best  in  the  market.  The  plain  sections 
are  so  admirable  that  they  will  be  largely  used ;  then  the  frame 
supports  must  be  used.  In  any  case  a  follower  (Fig.  115,  £>) 
should  be  used  to  crowd  the  sections  with  separators  close 
together.  This  may  be  pushed  by  use  of  a  thumb-screw  (Fig. 
114),  wedge,  or  steel  spring. 

Mr.  Adam  Grimm  once  wrote  that  boxes  above  the  hive 
should  not  be  closely  covered.  As  already  stated,  Mr.  Heddon 
puts  no  close  cover  over  his  sections.  Mr.  Hasty  is  pleased 
with  simply  a  cloth,  cheap  muslin,  above  his  sections,  and  a 
board  cover  to  protect  from  rains.  Such  ventilation  of  the 
sections  is  scientific  as  well  as  practical. 

All  apiarists  who  desire  to  work  for  comb  honey  that  will 
sell,  will  certainly  use  the  sections,  and  adjust  them  by  use  of 
either  frames  or  cases.  Each  method  has  its  friends,  though 
I  think  cases  or  supers  are  justly  taking  the  lead. 

SEPARATORS. 

These  may  be  of  wood  or  tin.  While  the  tin  were  first 
used,  and  do  work  well,  the  wood  seem  to  be  growing  in  favor, 
and  seem  likely  wholly  to  replace  the  tin.   The  wood  are  poorer 


Or,  manual  of  the  apiary. 


251 


conductors  of  heat,  and  also  give  a  foothold  for  the  bees,  both 
of  which  are  desirable  qualities. 

FOOT-POWER   SAW. 

Every  apiarist,  who  keeps  only  a  few  bees,  will  find,  if  he 
makes  his  own  hives,  a  foot-power  saw  very  valuable.  I  have 
used,  with  great  satisfaction,  the  admirably  combined  foot- 
power  saw  of  W.  F.  &  John  Barnes  Co.     It  permits  rapid  work, 

Fig.  117. 


Horse-Power. — From  A.  I.  Boot  Co. 


insures  uniformity,  and  enables  the  apiarist  to  give  a  finish  to 
his  work  that  would  rival  that  of  the  cabinet-maker. 

Those  who  procure  such  a  machine  should  learn  to  file  and 
set  the  saw,  and  should  never  run  the  machine  when  not  in 
perfect  order. 

When  just  beginning  the  business  it  will  generally  be 
wise  to  secure  a  fully  equipped  hive  of  some  bee  keeper  or 
dealer  in  supplies.  If  there  is  a  hive  factory  near  at  hand,  it 
may  pay  to  buy  all  hives  ready  made  ;  otherwise  high  freights 
may  make  this  unprofitable,  If  a  person  wishes  to  manufacture 


252 


THE  BEE-KEEPER  S  GUIDE! 


hives  by  the  score,  either  for  himself  or  others,  even  the  foot- 
power  saw  will  soon  become  too  slow  and  wearying.  In  this 
case  some  use  wind-power,  which  is  too  uncertain  to  give  full 
satisfaction  ;  others  use  horse-power,  and  still  others  procure 
a  small  steam-engine. 

Mr.  M.  H,  Hunt,  a  very  thoughtful  apiarist,  uses  a  very  con- 
venient horse-power  (Fig.  117).  The  large  wheel  is  fifteen  feet 
in  diameter,  the  horse  is  inside  the  rim,  and  the  band  consists 

Fig.  118. 


Saw-Table.— From  A.  I.  Boot  Co. 


of  a  chain,  that  it  may  not  slip.     To  get  the  horse  in  position, 
the  wheel  is  simply  lowered. 

I  have  used  a  tread-power  which  pleases  me  much.  It  is 
safe,  can  be  used  under  shelter,  and  if  one  has  colts  or  young 
horses  it  serves  well  to  quiet  them.  As  gasoline  engines  are 
now  so  cheap,  and  convenient ;  and  as  crude  oil  for  steam  en- 
gines is  so  cheap,  such  engines  will  generally  be  preferred 
when  one's  business  is  at  all  extensive.  In  case  we  use  other 
than  foot  or  hand  power,  our  saw-table  must  be  firm  and  heavy. 
The  one  illustrated  here  (Fig.  118)  is  recommended  by  Mr.  A. 
I.  Root. 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY.  253 


CHAPTER  VL 

POSITION  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  APIARY. 

As  it  is  desirable  to  have  our  apiary  grounds  so  fixed  as  to 
give  the  best  results,  and  as  this  costs  some  money  and  more 
labor,  it  should  be  done  once  for  all.  As  plan  and  execution 
in  this  direction  must  needs  precede  even  the  purchase  of  bees, 
this  subject  deserves  an-  early  consideration.  Hence,  we  will 
proceed  to  consider  position,  arrangement  of  grounds,  and 
preparation  for  each  individual  colony. 

POSITION. 

Of  course,  it  is  of  the  first  importance  that  the  apiary  be 
near  at  hand.  In  city  or  village  this  is  imperative.  In  the 
country,  or  at  suburban  homes,  we  have  more  choice,  but  close 
proximity  to  the  house  is  of  much  importance.  In  a  city  it 
may  be  necessary  to  follow  Mr.  Muth?s  example,  and  locate  on 
the  house-tops,  where,  despite  the  inconvenience,  we  may 
achieve  success.  The  lay  of  the  ground  is  not  important, 
though,  if  a  hill,  it  should  not  be  very  steep.  It  may  slope  in 
any  direction,  but  better  any  way  than  toward  the  north.  Of 
course,  each  hive  should  stand  perfectly  level. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF   GROUNDS. 

Unless  sandy,  these  should  be  well  drained.  If  a  grove 
offers  inviting  shade,  accept  it,  but  trim  high  to  avoid  damp. 
Such  a  grove  could  soon  be  formed  of  basswood  and  tulip 
trees,  which,  as  we  shall  see,  are  very  desirable,  as  their  bloom 
offers  plenteous  and  most  delicious  honey.  Even  Virgil  urged 
shade  of  palm  and  olive,  also  that  we  screen  the  bees  from 
winds.  Wind-screens  are  very  desirable,  especially  on  the 
windw^d  side.  Such  a  screen  may  be  formed  of  a  tall  board 
fence,  which,  if  it  surrounds  the  ^[rounds,  will  also  serve  to 
protect  against  thieves.     Yet  these  are  gloomy  and  forbidding, 


254  THE  BEE-KKEPER'S  GUIDE  ; 

and  will  be  eschewed  by  the  apiarist  who  has  an  eye  to 
esthetics.  Evergreen  screens,  either  of  Norway  spruce, 
Austrian  or  other  pine,  or  arbor  vitae,  each  or  all  are  not  only 
very  effective,  but  are  quickly  grown,  inexpensive,  and  add 
greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the  g-rounds.  In  California  eucalyp- 
tus is  very  desirable  shade.  The  species  grow  vigorously, 
stand  drouth,  and  if  wisely  selected  afford  much  honey.  Such 
a  fence  or  hedge  is  also  very  desirable  if  the  bees  are  near  a 
street  or  highway.  It  not  only  shuts  the  bees  away,  as  it 
were,  but  it  so  directs  their  flight  upward  that  they  will  not 
trouble  passers-by.  If  the  apiary  is  large,  a  small,  neat,  inex- 
pensive house  in  the  center  of  the  apiary  grounds  is  indispen- 
sable. This  will  serve  in  winter  as  a  shop  for  making  hives, 
frames,  etc.,  and  as  a  store-house  for  honey,  while  in  summer 
it  will  be  used  for  extracting,  transferring,  storing,  bottling, 
etc.  In  building  this,  it  will  be  well  to  construct  a  frost-proof, 
thoroughly  drained,  dark  and  well-ventilated  cellar.  (See 
Chapters  XVIII  and  XIX.) 

PREPARATION   FOR   EACH   COI.ONY. 

Virgil  was  right  in  recommending  shade  for  each  colony. 
Bees  are  forced  to  cluster  outside  the  hive,  if  the  bees  are  sub- 
jected to  the  full  force  of  the  sun's  rays.  By  the  intense  heat 
the  temperature  inside  becomes  like  that  of  an  oven,  and  the 
wonder  is  that  they  do  not  desert  entirely.  I  have  known 
hives,  thus  unprotected,  to  be  covered  with  bees,  idling  outside, 
when,  by  simply  shading  the  hives,  all  would  go  merrily  to 
work.  The  combs,  too,  and  foundation  especially,  are  liable, 
in  unshaded  hives,  to  melt  and  fall  down,  which  is  very  dam- 
aging to  the  bees,  and  very  vexatious  to  the  apiarist.  The 
remedy  for  all  this  is  always  to  have  the  hives  so  situated  that 
they  will  be  entirely  shaded  all  through  the  heat  of  the  day. 
This  might  be  done,  as  in  the  olden  time,  by  constructing  a 
shed  or  house,  but  these  are  expensive  and  very  inconvenient, 
and,  therefore,  to  be  discarded. 

If  the  aiarist  has  a  convenient  grove  this  may  be  trimmed 
high,  so  as  not  to  be  damp,  and  will  fulfill  every  requirement. 
So  arrange  the  hives  that  while  they  are  shaded  through  all 
the  heat  of  the  day,  they  will  receive  the  sun's  rays  early  and 


OR,  MANUAL  OF  THE   APIARY. 


255 


late,  and  thus  the  bees  will  work  more  hours.  I  always  face 
my  hives  to  the  east.  Such  a  grove  is  also  very  agreeable  to 
the  apiarist  who  often  must   work   all    the  day  in   the  hottest 

Fig.  119. 


Nucleus  atid  SimpUciti/  Ifii>e  SJiaikd  by  Grapevine. — From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 


sunshine.  If  no  grove  is  at  command,  the  hives  may  be  placed 
on  the  north  of  a  Concord  grape-vine  (Fig.  119),  or  other  vig- 
orous variety,  as  the  apiarist  may  prefer.    This  should  bQ 


256  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

trained  to  a  trellis,  which  may  be  made  by  setting  two  posts, 
either  of  cedar  or  oak.  Let  these  extend  four  or  five  feet  above 
the  ground,  and  be  three  or  four  feet  apart.  Two  or  three 
supporting  arms  of  narrow  boards  can  be  nailed  at  right 
angles  to  a  single  post  on  which  to  train  the  vines,  or  we  may 
connect  them  at  intervals  of  eighteen  inches  with  three  gal- 
vanized wires,  the  last  one  being  at  the  top  of  the  posts.  Thus 
we  can  have  shade  and  grapes,  and  can  see  for  ourselves  that 
bees  do  not  injure  grapes.  These  should  be  at  least  six  feet 
apart.  A.  I.  Root's  idea  of  having  the  vine  of  each  succeeding 
row  divide  the  spaces  of  the  previous  row,  in  quincunx  order 
(Fig.  120),  is  very  good  ;  though  I  should  prefer  the  rows  in  this 
case  to  be  four  instead  of  three  feet  apart.  I  have  tried  grape- 
vines and  evergreens  to  shade  hives,  and  do  not  like  them. 
They  are  too  much  in  the  way.  Unless  I  can  have  a  grove 
trimmed  high  up  I  much  prefer  a  simple  shade-board  as  already 
suggested.  This  is  simply  a  wide  board  nailed  to  the  edge  of 
two  cross-boards,  which  are  about  four  inches  wide.  I  make 
these  eighteen  inches  wide  by  two  feet  long.  I  have  some 
even  larger.  If  one  cross-board  is  a  little  narrower  it  gives  a 
slant  that  insures  a  rapid  removal  of  the  water  in  a  rain.  I 
have  never  known  these  shade-boards  to  blow  off.  Should 
they  do  so  a  second  board  parallel  to  the  shade-board  could  be 
nailed  to  the  cross-boards.  A  brick  placed  on  this  would  make 
all  secure.  This  shade-board  is  inexpensive,  always  out  of 
the  way,  and  ready  for  service. 

Many  apiarists  economize  by  using  fruit-trees  for  shade, 
which,  from  their  spreading  tops,  serve  well,  though  often 
from  their  low  branches  they  are  not  pleasant  to  work  under. 
Mr.  Doolittle  thinks  if  hives  are  painted  white  shade  is  unneces- 
sary. Mr.  A.  I.  Root's  idea  of  having  sawdust  under  and 
about  the  hives  has  much  to  recommend  it.  The  objection  to 
sawdust  is  the  danger  from  fire.  I  have  used  sawdust,  cement, 
asphalt,  etc.  I  think  on  the  whole  a  fine  grass  lawn  kept 
closely  and  smoothly  mown  is  as  convenient  as  any  plan,  and 
it  certainly  has  taste  and  beauty  to  recommend  it.  If  closely 
mown,  one  will  rarely  lose  a  queen.  While  ashes  or  sawdust 
make  a  queen  walking  upon  them  more  conspicuous,  I  much 
prefer  the  beautiful  grass  plat. 


OR,  MANOAt.  OF  THE  APIARV. 


Fig.  120.     Grape-  Vine  Apiary— From  A.  I.  Boot  €o. 


THE  BEK-KEHPBR'S  GUIDE; 


CHAPTER  VIL 

TO  TRANSFER  BEES. 

As  the  prospective  bee-keeper  may  have  purchased  his 
bees  in  box-hives,  barrels,  or  hollow  logs,  and  so,  of  course, 
will  desire  to  transfer  them  immediately  into  movable-frame 
hives,  or,  as  already  suggested,  may  wish  to  transfer  from  one 
movable-frame  to  another,  I  will  now  proceed  to  describe  the 
process. 

Among  the  many  valuable  methods  which  Mr.  Heddon  has 
given  to  the  bee-keeping  public,  not  the  least  valuable  is  that  of 
transferring.  This  method  should  be  used  only  at  or  just  before 
the  swarming  season— the  best  time  to  transfer.  After  blow- 
ing a  little  smoke  into  the  hive,  sufficient  to  alarm  the  bees, 
we  set  it  a  little  aside,  and  put  in  its  place  the  new  hive  full  of 
wired  foundation.  We  now  turn  the  old  hive,  whatever  it  may 
be,  bottom  side  up,  and  place  a  box  over  it.  If  the  bees  are 
sufficiently  smoked,  it  will  make  no  difference  even  if  the  box 
is  not  close-fitting  to  the  old  hive.  Yet  the  beginner  will  feel 
safer  to  have  it  so;  and  in  this  case  no  stinging  can  take 
place.  We  then  with  a  stick  or  hammer  rap  on  the  hive  for 
from  ten  to  twenty  minutes.  The  bees  will  fill  with  honey 
and  go  with  the  queen  into  the  upper  box  and  cluster.  If 
towards  the  last  we  carefully  set  the  box  off  once  or  twice,  and 
vigorously  shake  the  hive,  and  then  replace  the  box,  we  will 
hasten  the  emigration  of  the  bees,  and  make  it  more  complete. 
I  got  this  last  suggestion  from  Mr.  Baldridge.  A  few  young 
bees  will  still  remain  in  the  old  hive,  but  these  will  do  no  harm. 

We  next  take  the  box,  which  contains  the  queen  and  nearly 
all  the  bees,  and  shake  the  bees  all  out  in  front  of  the  hive 
already  placed  on  the  old  stand.  The  bees  will  at  once  take 
possession,  draw  out,  or  better,  build  out,  the  foundation  in  a 
surprisingly  short  time,  and  will  give  us  a  set  of  combs  which 
will  surpass  in  beauty  those  procured  in  any  other  way. 
Should  the  bees  be  unable  to  gather  any  honey  for  some  days, 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THB  APIARY.  259 

which  at  this  season  is  not  likely  to  occur,  of  course  we  must 
feed  them. 

We  set  the  old  hive  aside  for  twenty-one  days,  when  the 
young  bees  will  all  come  from  the  cells.  Should  the  weather 
be  cold,  it  might  be  well  to  put  this  in  a  warm  room,  so  the 
brood  will  not  chill.  At  the  time  of  swarming  this  will  rarely 
be  necessary.  We  now  drum  out  these  bees  as  before,  kill  the 
queen,  which  has  been  reared,  and  unite  the  bees  with  the 
others,  or  form  a  separate  colony  as  before,  as  the  number  of 
bees  determines.  We  can  now  split  out  the  corners  of  the 
old  hive,  split  the  gum,  or  separate  the  staves  of  the  barrel, 
so  as  not  to  break  the  comb.  This  should  be  carefully  cut 
loose,  and  the  honey  extracted  by  use  of  the  wire  comb-holder 
(Fig.  150),  and  the  comb  melted  Into  wax  for  foundation.  The 
only  loss  in  this  method  is  the  time  which  the  bees  require  to 
build  out  the  foundation,  and  this  is  far  more  than  made  up  in 
the  superior  combs  which  are  secured.  I  think  the  time 
expended  in  melting  up  the  combs,  etc.,  is  more  than  made  up 
by  the  time  saved  in  transferring. 

THE  OLD   METHOD. 

If  one  has  no  foundation,  or  desires  to  give  the  bees  the 
comb  and  honey  at  once,  even  at  the  cost  of  less  shapely 
combs,  he  then  should  drum  the  bees  out  as  before,  on  a  warm 
day  when  they  are  busy  at  work,  and  put  the  box  containing 
the  bees  on  the  old  stand,  leaving  the  edge  raised  so  that  the 
bees  which  are  out  may  enter,  and  so  all  the  bees  can  get  air. 
This  method  is  difficult,  except  in  early  spring,  and  is  best 
done  about  noon,  when  the  bees  are  busy  on  the  fruit-bloom. 
It  is  not  safe  to  transfer  on  a  hot  day,  when  the  bees  are  idle, 
as  the  risks  from  robbing  are  too  great.  If  otheV  bees  do  not 
trouble,  as  they  usually  will  not  if  busily  gathering,  we  can 
proceed  in  the  open  air.  If  they  do,  we  must  go  into  some 
room.  I  have  frequently  transferred  the  comb  in  my  kitchen, 
and  often  in  a  barn. 

Now  knock  the  old  hive  apart,  as  already  described,  cut 
the  combs  from  the  sides,  and  get  the  combs  out  of  the  old 
hive  with  just  as  little  breakage  as  possible.  Mr.  Baldridge, 
if  transferring  in  spring,  saws  the  combs  and  cross-sticks 


260 


THE  BEE-KEEPER'S  GUIDE; 


loose  from  the  sides,  turns  the  hive  into  the  natural  position, 
then  strikes  against  the  top  of  the  hive  with  a  hammer  till  the 
fastenings  are  broken  loose,  when  he  lifts  the  hive,  and  the 
combs  are  all  free  and  in  convenient  shape  for  rapid  work. 

We  now  need  a  barrel,  set  on  end,  on  which  we  place  a 
board  fifteen  to  twenty  inches  square,  covered  with  several 
thicknesses  of  cloth.  Some  apiarists  think  the  cloth  useless, 
but  it  serves,  I  think,  to  prevent  injury  to  comb,  brood  or 
honey.  We  now  place  a  comb  on  this  cloth,  and  set  a  frame 
on  the  comb,  and  cut  out  a  piece  of  the  comb  the  size  of  the 
inside  of  the  frame,  taking  pains  to  save  all  the  worker-brood. 
Now  crowd  the  frame  over  the  comb,  so  that  the  latter  will  be 
in  the  same  position  that  it  was  when  in  the  old  hive  ;  that  is, 
so  the  honey  will  be  above — the  position  is  not  very  important 
—then  fasten  the  comb  in  the  frame,  by  winding  about  all  one 
or  two  small  wires,  or  pieces  of  wrapping-twine.  To  raise  the 
frame  and  comb  before  fastening,  raise  the  board  beneath  till 

Fig.  122. 


Tratisf erring-Clasp. — 
From  American  £ee  Journal. 


Transferred  Comb.— From  American  Bee  Journal. 


the  frame  is  vertical.  Set  this  frame  in  the  new  hive,  and 
proceed  with  the  others  in  the  same  way  till  we  have  all  the 
worker-comb— that  with  small  cells — fastened  in.  To  secure 
the  pieces,  which  we  shall  find  abundant  at  the  end,  take  thin 
pieces  of  wood,  one-half  inch  wide,  and  a  trifle  longer  than  the 
frame  is  deep,  place  these  in  pairs  either  side  the  comb, 
extending  up  and  down,  and  enough  to  hold  the  pieces  secure 
till  the  bees  shall  fasten  them  (Fig.  121),  and  secure  the  strips 
by  winding  with  small  wire,  just  below  the  frame  (Fig.  122), 
or  by  use  of  small  rubber  bands,  or  else  tack  them  to  the  frame 


OR,   MANUAi;  OI^  THB  APIARY.  261 

with  small  tacks.  Some  bee-keepers  use  U-shaped  pieces  of 
wire  or  tin  to  hold  the  comb  in  the  frame. 

Captain  Hetherington  has  invented  and  practices  a  very 
neat  method  of  fastening  comb  into  frames.  In  constructing 
his  frames,  he  bores  small  holes  through  the  top,  side  and 
bottom  bars  of  his  frames,  about  two  inches  apart ;  these  holes 
are  just  large  enough  to  permit  the  passage  of  the  long  spines 
of  the  hawthorn.  Now,  in  transferring  comb,  he  has  but  to 
stick  these  thorns  through  into  the  comb  to  hold  it  securely. 
He  can  also  use  all  the  pieces,  and  still  make  a  neat  and  secure 
frame  of  comb.  He  finds  this  arrangement  convenient,  too, 
in  strengthening  insecure  combs.  In  answer  to  my  inquiry, 
this  gentleman  said  it  paid  well  to  bore  such  holes  in  all  his 
frames,  which  are  eleven  by  sixteen  inches,  inside  measure. 
I  discarded  such  frames  because  of  the  liability  of  the  comb 
to  fall  out. 

Having  fastened  all  the  nice  worker-comb  into  the  frames 
—of  course,  all  other  comb  will  be  melted  into  wax — we  place 
all  the  frames  containing  brood  together  in  the  center  of  our 
new  hive,  especially  if  the  colony  is  weak,  or  the  weather  cool, 
and  confine  the  space  by  use  of  the  division-board,  adding  the 
other  frames  as  the  bees  may  need  them.  We  now  place  the 
new  hive  on  the  stand,  opening  the  entrance  wide,  so  that  the 
bees  can  enter  anywhere  along  the  alighting-board.  We  then 
shake  all  the  bees  from  the  box,  and  any  young  bees  that  may 
have  clustered  on  any  part  of  the  old  hive,  or  on  the  floor  or 
ground,  where  we  transferred  the  comb,  immediately  in  front 
of  the  hive.  They  will  enter  at  once  and  soon  be  at  work,  all 
the  busier  for  having  passed  "from  the  old  house  into  the 
new."  In  two  or  three  days  remove  the  wires,  or  strings  or 
sticks,  when  we  shall  find  the  combs  all  fastened  and  smoothed 
off,  and  the  bees  as  busily  engaged  as  though  their  present 
home  had  always  been  the  seat  of  their  labors. 

In  practicing  this  method,  many  proceed  at  once  to  trans- 
fer without  drumming  out  the  bees.  In  this  case  the  bees 
should  be  well  smoked,  should  be  driven,  by  the  use  of  the 
smoker,  away  from  the  side  of  the  old  hive  where  the  combs 
are  being  cut  loose,  and  may  be  brushed  direct  from  the  old 
combs  into  the  new  hive.    This  method  will  only  be  preferred 


262  THE  BEE-KEEPER  S  GUIDE', 

by  the  experienced.  The  beginner  will  find  it  more  easy  and 
pleasant  first  to  drum  out  all  the  bees  before  he  commences  to 
cut  out  the  combs. 

Of  course,  in  transferring;  from  one  frame  to  another,  the 
matter  is  much  simplified.  In  this  case,  after  thoroughly 
smoking  the  bees,  we  have  but  to' lift  the  frames  and  shake  or 
brush  the  bees  into  the  new  hive.  For  a  brush,  a  chicken  or 
turkey  wing,  a  large  wing  or  tail  feather  from  a  turkey,  goose 
or  peacock,  or  a  twig  of  pine  or  bunch  of  asparagus  twigs 
serves  admirably.  Cheap  and  excellent  brushes  (Fig.  154)  are 
now  for  sale  by  all  supply-dealers.  Now  cut  out  the  comb  in 
the  best  form  to  accommodate  the  new  frames,  and  fasten  as 
already  suggested.  After  the  combs  are  all  transferred,  shake 
all  remaining  bees  in  front  of  the  new  hive,  which  has  already 
been  placed  on  the  stand  previously  occupied  by  the  old  hive. 

Sometimes  bees  from  trees  in  the  forest  are  transferred  to 
hives  and  the  apiary. 

HUNTING  BEE-TREES. 

Except  for  recreation,  this  is  seldom  profitable.  It  is 
slow  and  uncertain  work.  The  tree,  when  found,  is  not  our 
own,  and  though  the  owner  may  consent  to  our  cutting  it,  he 
may  dislike  to  do  so.  The  bees,  when  found,  are  difficult  to 
get  alive  ;  it  is  even  more  difficult  to  get  the  honey  in  good 
condition,  and,  when  secured,  the  honey  and  bees  are  often 
almost  worthless. 

The  principle  upon  which  bees  are  "  lined  "  is  this  :  That 
after  filling  with  honey,  a  bee  always  takes  a  direct  course — 
"  a  bee-line  " — to  its  hive.  To  hunt  the  bee-trees  we  need  a 
bottle  of  sweetened  water,  a  little  honey-comb,  unless  the  bees 
are  gathering  freely  from  forest  flowers,  and  a  small  bottom- 
less box  with  a  sliding  glass  cover,  and  a  small  shelf  attached 
to  the  middle  of  one  side  on  the  inside  of  the  box.  A  shallow 
tray,  or  piece  of  honey-comb,  is  to  be  fastened  to  this  shelf. 
If  the  bees  are  not  found  on  flowers,  we  can  attract  them  by 
burning  a  piece  of  honey-comb.  If  on  a  flower,  set  the  box 
over  them  after  turning  a  little  of  the  sweetened  water  in  the 
comb  or  tray  on  the  shelf.  It  is  easy  to  get  them  to  sipping 
this  sweet.    Then  slide  the  glass,  and,  when  they  fly,  watch 


OR,  MANUAL  OF  THE   APIARY.  263 

closely  and  see  the  direction  they  take.  By  following  this 
line  we  come  to  the  bee-tree,  or  more  likely  to  some  neighbor's 
apiary.  By  getting  two  lines,  if  the  bees  are  from  the  same 
tree,  the  tree  will  be  where  the  lines  meet.  We  should  be  care- 
ful not  to  be  led  to  neighboring  apiaries,  and  should  look  very 
closely  when  the  bees  fly,  to  be  sure  of  the  line.  Bxperience 
makes  a  person  quite  skillful.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  in 
warm  days  in  winter,  when  there  is  snow  on  the  ground,  we 
may  often  find  bee-trees  by  noting  dead  bees  on  the  snow,  as 
also  the  spotting  of  the  snow,  as  the  bees  void  their  feces. 
When  a  tree  is  found,  we  must  use  all  possible  ingenuity  to 
get  the  combs  whole  if  we  wish  to  transfer  the  bees.  We  may 
cut  in  and  remove  the  comb  ;  may  cut  out  the  section  of  tree 
containing  the  bees  and  lower  this  by  use  of  a  rope ;  or  we 
may  fell  the  tree.  In  this  last  case  we  may  make  the  destruc- 
tion less  complete  if  we  fall  the  tree  on  other  smaller  trees  to 
lessen  the  jar. 


264  THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 


CHAPTER  Vm. 
FEEDING  AND  FEEDERS. 

As  already  stated,  it  is  only  •when  the  worker-bees  are 
storing  that  the  queen  deposits  to  the  full  extent  of  her  capa- 
bility, and  that  brood-rearing  is  at  its  height.  In  fact,  when 
storing  ceases,  general  indolence  characterizes  the  hive.  This 
is  peculiarly  true  of  the  German  and  Italian  races  of  bees. 
Hence,  if  we  would  achieve  the  best  success,  we  must  keep  the 
workers  active,  even  before  gathering  commences,  as  also  in 
the  interims  of  honey-secretion  by  the  flowers  ;  and  to  do  this 
we  must  feed  sparingly  before  the  advent  of  bloom  in  the 
spring,  and  whenever  the  workers  are  forced  to  idleness  during 
any  part  of  the  season,  by  the  absence  of  honey-producing 
flowers.  For  a  number  of  years  I  have  tried  experiments  in 
this  direction  by  feeding  a  portion  of  my  colonies  early  in  the 
season,  and  in  the  intervals  of  honey-gathering,  and  always 
with  marked  results  in  favor  of  the  practice.  Of  course  it  is 
not  well  to  feed  unless  we  expect  a  honey  harvest  the  same 
season.  Thus,  I  would  not  feed  after  clover  or  basswood 
bloom  unless  I  expected  a  fall  harvest.  The  fact  that  honey 
seasons  are  uncertain,  makes  the  policy  of  feeding  merely 
to  stimulate  questionable. 

Mr.  D.  A.  Jones  has  truly  said  that  if  feeeding  in  the 
autumn  be  deferred  too  long,  till  the  queen  ceases  laying,  it 
often  takes  much  time  to  get  her  to  resume,  and  not  infre- 
quently we  fail  entirely. 

Every  apiarist,  whether  novice  or  veteran,  will  often 
receive  ample  reward  by  practicing  stimulative  feeding  early 
in  the  season  ;  then  his  hive  at  the  dawn  of  the  white  clover 
era  will  be  redundant  with  bees,  well  filled  with  brood,  and  in 
just  the  trim  to  receive  a  bountiful  harvest  of  this  most 
delicious  nectar. 

Feeding  is  often  necessary  to  secure  sufficient  stores  for 


OR,  MiNtfAt  OJf  THE  APIARY.  265 

winter— for  no  apiarist,  worthy  of  the  name,  will  suflFer  his 
faithful,  willing  subjects  to  starve,  when  so  little  care  and 
expense  will  prevent  it.  This  is  peculiarly  true  in  Southern 
California,  where  severe  drouths  often  prevent  any  harvest, 
and  these  may  occur  on  two  successive  years. 

If  we  only  wish  to  stimulate,  the  amount  fed  need  not  be 
great.  A  half  pound  a  day,  or  even  less,  will  be  all  that  is 
necessary  to  encourage  the  bees  to  active  preparation  for  the 
good  time  coming.  For  information  in  regard  to  supplying 
stores  for  winter,  see  Chapter  XVIII. 

Bees,  when  very  active,  especially  in  very  warm  weather, 
like  most  higher  animals,  need  water.  This  very  likely  is  to 
permit  evaporation  in  respiration,  and  the  necessary  cooling 
of  the  body.  At  such  times  bees  repair  to  pool,  stream  or 
watering-trough.  As  with  other  animals,  the  addition  of  salt 
makes  the  water  more  appetizing,  and  doubtless  more  valuable. 
Unless  water  is  near,  it  always  ought  to  be  furnished  to  bees. 
Any  vessel  containing  chips  or  small  pieces  of  boards  to  secure 
against  drowning  will  serve  for  giving  water.  In  case  bees 
trouble  about  watering-troughs,  a  little  carbolic  acid  or  kero- 
sene-oil on  the  edge  of  the  trough  will  often  send  them  away. 

WHAT  TO   FEED. 

For  this  purpose  I  would  feed  granulated  sugar,  reduced  to 
the  consistency  of  honey,  or  else  extracted  honey  kept  over 
from  the  previous  year.  If  we  use  two-thirds  sjrup  and  one- 
third  good  honey  we  save  all  danger  of  crystallization  or 
granulation.  We  add  the  honey  when  the  syrup  is  hot,  and 
stir.  The  price  of  the  honey  will  decide  which  is  the  more 
profitable.  The  careful  experiments  of  R.  L,.  Taylor  show 
that  nearly  three  times  as  much  honey  as  syrup  will  be  con- 
sumed. This  argues  strongly  for  the  syrup.  Dark,  inferior 
honey  often  serves  well  for  stimulative  feeding,  and  as  it  is 
not  salable,  may  well  be  used  in  this  way.  To  make  the 
syrup,  I  use  one  quart  of  water  to  two  of  sugar,  and  heat  till 
the  sugar  is  dissolved.  Mr.  R.  I^.  Taylor  first  boils  the  water, 
hen  stirs  in  the  sugar  till  all  boils,  when  he  says  it  will  not 
granulate  even  with  no  acid  added.  This  also  removes  all 
danger  of  burning  the  syrup,  which   must   never  be  done.     By 


266  tha  bbb-k&bpbr*s  curoB ; 

stirring  till  all  the  sugar  is  dissolved  we  may  make  the  sjrap 
without  any  heat.  We  use  equal  parts  of  sugar  and  water, 
and  may  easily  stir  by  using  the  honey  extractor.  We  put  in 
the  water  and  add  the  sugar  as  we  turn  the  machine.  A  little 
tartaric  acid— an  even  teaspoonful  to  fifteen  pounds  of  syrup — 
or  evena  little  extracted  honey,  will  also  prevent  crystalliza- 
tion.    If  fed  warm  in  early  spring  it  is  all  the  better. 

Many  advise  feedin  the  poorer  grades  of  sugar  in  spring. 
My  own  experience  makes  me  question  the  policy  of  ever  using 
such  feed  for  bees.  The  feeding  of  glucose  or  grape  sugar  is 
even  worse  policy.  It  is  bad  food  for  the  bees,  and  its  use  is 
dangerous  to  the  bee-keeper's  reputation,  and  injurious  to  our 
brother  bee-keepers.  Glucose  is  so  coupled  with  fraud  and 
adulteration  that  he  who  would  "  avoid  the  appearance  of 
evil "  must  let  it  severely  alone. 

In  all  feeding,  unless  extracted  honey  is  what  we  are 
using,  we  can  not  exercise  too  great  care  that  such  feed  is  not 
carried  to  the  surplus  boxes.  Only  let  our  customers  once 
taste  sugar  in  their  comb  honey,  and  not  only  is  our  own  repu- 
tation gone,  but  the  whole  fraternity  is  injured.  In  case  we 
wish  to  have  our  combs  in  the  sections  filled  or  capped,  we 
must  feed  extracted  honey,  which  may  often  be  done  with 
great  advantage.  I  have  often  fed  extracted  honey  back  to 
the  bees,  after  the  honey-flow  ceased,  when  it  would  be  quickly 
stored  in  the  sections.  More  frequently,  however,  I  have 
utterly  failed  of  success. 

HOW  TO   FEBD. 

The  requisites  of  a  good  feeder  are  :  Cheapness,  a  form  to 
admit  quick  feeding,  to  permit  no  loss  of  heat,  and  so  arranged 
that  we  can  feed  at  all  seasons  without  in  any  way  disturbing 
the  bees.  The  feeder  (Fig.  123),  which  I  have  used  with  good 
satisfaction,  is  a  modified  division-board,  the  top-bar  of  which 
(Fig.  123,  b)  is  two  inches  wide.  From  the  upper  central  por- 
tion, beneath  the  top-bar,  a  rectangular  piece  the  size  of  an 
oyster-can  is  replaced  with  an  oyster-can  (Fig.  123,  ^),  after 
the  top  of  the  latter  has  been  removed.  A  vertical  piece  of 
wood  (Fig.  123,  d)  is  fitted  into  the  can  so  as  to  separate  a 
space  about  one  inch  square,  on  one  side,  from  the  balance  of 


Or,  MAmjAt  oP  THfi  aHary. 


i67 


the  chamber.  This  piece  does  not  reach  quite  to  the  bottom 
of  the  can,  there  being  a  one-eighth  inch  space  beneath.  In 
the  top-bar  there  is  an  opening-  (Fig-.  123,  e)  just  above  the 
smaller  space  below.  In  the  larger  space  is  a  wooden  float 
(Fig.  123,/)  full  of  holes.  On  one  side  opposite  the  larger 
chamber  of  the  can,  a  half -inch  piece  of  the  top  (Fig.  123,  e)  is 
cut  off,  so  that  the  bees  can  pass  between  the  can  and  top-bar 
on  to  the  float,  where  they  can  sip  the  feed.  The  feed  is 
turned  into  the  hole  in  the  top-bar  (Fig.  123,  s),  and  without 
touching  a  bee,  passes  down  under  the  vertical  strip  (Fig.  123, 
d)  and  raises  the  float  (Fig.  123,/).     The  can  may  be  tacked  to 

Fig.  123. 


Division- Board  Feeder. — Original. 

Lower  part  of  the  face  of  the  can  removed,  to  show  float,  etc. 
—Original. 

the  board  at  the  ends  near  the  top.  Two  or  three  tacks 
through  the  can  into  the  vertical  piece  (Fig.  123,  d)  will  hold 
the  latter  firmly  in  place  ;  or  the  top-bar  may  press  on  the 
vertical  piece  so  that  it  can  not  move.  Crowding  a  narrow 
piece  of  woolen  cloth  between  the  can  and  board,  and  nailing 
a  similar  strip  around  the  beveled  edge  of  the  division-board, 
makes  all  snug.  The  objection  to  this  feeder  is  that  it  can  not 
be  placed  just  above  the  cluster  of  bees'.  On  very  cold  days  in 
spring  the  bees  can  not  reach  their  food  in  any  other  position. 
The  feeder  is  placed  at  the  end  of  the  brood-chamber,  and  the 


268  THE  bee-kkeper's  guide; 

top-bar  covered  by  the  quilt.  To  feed,  we  have  only  to  fold 
the  quilt  over,  when  with  a  tea-pot  we  pour  the  feed  into  the 
hole  in  the  top-bar.  If  a  honey-board  is  used,  there  must  be  a 
hole  in  this  just  above  the  hole  in  the  division-board  feeder. 
In  either  case  no  bees  can  escape,  the  heat  is  confined,  and  our 
division-board  feeder  is  but  little  more  expensive  than  a 
division-board  alone. 

Some  apiarists  prefer  a  quart  can  set  on  a  block  (Pig. 
124),  or  it  may  be  used  with  a  finely  perforated  cover.    This  is 

Fig.  124. 


Fruit-Jar  Feeder. — From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 

filled  with  liquid,  the  cover  put  on,  and  the  whole  quickly 
inverted  and  set  above  a  hole  in  the  cover  just  above  the  bees. 
Owing  to  the  pressure  of  the  air,  the  liquid  will  not  descend  so 
rapidly  that  the  bees  can  not  sip  it  up.  The  objections  to  this 
feeder  are,  that  it  is  awkward,  raises  the  cushions  so  as  to  per- 
mit the  escape  of  heat,  and  must  be  removed  to  receive  the 
feed.  Mr.  A.  I.  Root  recommends  the  little  butter-trays  sold 
at  the  groceries,  for  feeding.  These  cost  only  one-third  of  a 
cent.  "Need  no  float,  and  work  admirably."  I  have  tried 
these,  and  think  they  have  only  their  cheapness  to  recom- 
mend them.  They  raise  the  cover,  can  not  be  filled  without 
disturbing  the  bees,  leak,  and  daub  the  bees.  Even  paper 
sacks  of  good  quality,  with  small  holes  in  them,  have  been 
used.  They  are  laid  on  the  frames,  and  cost  very  little.  As 
feeders  last  for  a  lifetime,  I  prefer  to  pay  more  and  get  good 
ones. 


OR,.  MANUAI.  OF  THE  APIARY.  269 

The  Simplicity  feeder  (Fig.  125),  invented  by  A.  I.  Root, 
is  shown  on  its  side  in  the  illustration.  This  is  used  at  the 
entrance,  and  so  is  not  g-ood  for  cold  weather.    As  the  feed  is 

Fig.  125. 


Simplicity  Bee-Feeder.— From  A.  J.  Hoot  Co. 

exposed  it  can  only  be  used  at  nig-ht,  when  the  bees  are  not 
flying.  It  is  never,  I  think,  desirable  to  feed  outside  the  hive. 
The  Shuck  feeder  (Fig.  126)  is  a  modification  of  the  Sim- 
plicity, and  a  great  improvement.  This  is  used  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  hive,  or  by  nailing  two  together,  so  that  the  sides 
marked  D  will  face  each  other,  we  can  use  it  above  the  bees. 
We  then  would  place  the  opening  D  above  a  hole  in  the  cloth 


Shiick''s  Boss  Bee-Feeder. — From  American  Bee  Journal. 

cover,  or  honey-board,  turn  the  feed  in  at  C,  and  the  bees 
would  come  up  at  D,  pass  under  the  cover,  and  down  into  the 
saw-cuts  (Fig.  126,  A,  A),  when  they  would  sip  the  feed,  and 
then  crawl  up  on  the  partitions.  This  feeder  works  admirably, 
but  it  is  patented,  costs  too  much,  and  is  improved  in  the 


270  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 


SMITH   feeder. 


This  feeder  (Fig.  127)  is  larger  than  the  Shuck— I  make 
them  eight  bj  twelve  inches— and  is  covered  all  over  with  wire 
gauze  (Fig.  127,  a),  which  is  raised  by  the  wooden  rim  so  that 
the  bees  can  pass  readily  over  the  partitions  (Fig.  127).  The 
central  saw-cuts  (Fig.  127)  do  not  reach  the  end  of  the  feeder, 
so  there  is  a  platform  left  (Fig.  127,  d)  through  which  a  hole 
(Fig.  127,  c)  is  made.     This  rests  above  a  hole  in  the  cloth 

Fig.  127. 


Stnith  Bee-Feeder. — Original. 

below,  and  is  the  door  through  which  the  bees  reach  the  feed. 
When  in  position  just  above  the  bees  it  may  be  covered  by  a 
shingle  or  piece  of  pasteboard,  to  prevent  daubing  the  cloth  or 
cushion,  and  all  by  the  chaff  cushion.  To  feed,  we  have  only 
to  raise  the  cushion  and  the  pasteboard,  and  turn  the  food 
through  the  gauze.  No  bees  can  get  out,  there  is  no  disturb- 
ance, no  danger  from  the  robbers,  and  we  can  feed  at  any 
time,  and  can  feed  very  rapidly  if  desired.  I  like  this  feeder 
the  best  of  any  I  have  ever  tried.  I  make  them  out  of  two-inch 
plank. 

The  Heddon  feeder  (Fig.  128)  is  much  the  same  in  princi- 
ple as  the  Smith,  and  has  all  the  advantages.  It  is  the  size  of 
a  section-crate,  and  so  holds  many  pounds.  The  figure  makes 
it  plain.  The  spaces  in  this  are  not  saw-cuts,  but  are  formed 
by  thin  boards  nailed  in  a  box  vertically,  and  a  space  on  one 
or  both  sides  (Fig.  128)  does  not  connect  with  the  food  reser- 
voir, but  serves  as  a  passage-way  for  the  bees  from  hive  to 


OR,  MANCTAI,  OP  THIJ  APIARY.  271 

feeder.  In  the  center  is  a  passage  (Fig.  128,  c)  which  connects 
with  the  food  reservoir,  but  is  not  accessible  to  the  bees.  In 
this  the  food  is  poured  when  feeding,  which  makes  it  unneces- 
sary to  have  the  wire  gauze  above,  or  to  smear  the  top  when 
feeding,  as  in  case  of  the  Smith  feeder,  yet  this  feeder  does 
not  retain  the  heat  in  spring.  The  center  of  the  cover  slides 
back,  so  the  whole  cover  need  not  be  removed  when  feeding  is 
done.  The  vertical  partitions,  except  the  one  next  to  the  space 
(Fig.  128)  where  the  food  is  added,  do  not  run  quite  to  the 
board  which  covers  the  feeder,  and  so  the  bees  can  pass  into 

Fig.  128. 


JTeddon  Bee-Feeder.— From  James  Eeddon. 

all  the  spaces  except  where  we  pour  in  the  food.  No  partition 
except  the  one  next  to  the  space  where  the  bees  pass  to  and 
from  the  hive  runs  quite  to  the  bottom,  so  the  food  will  pass 
readily  from  one  space  to  the  other,  and  will  always  be  equally 
high  in  all. 

Mr.  D.  A.  Jones  and  many  others  having  tight  bottom- 
boards  to  their  hives  use  no  feeder,  but  turn  the  feed  right 
into  the  hive.  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller,  like  L.  C.  Root,  prefers  to 
feed  by  filling  frames  of  empty  comb  with  the  syrup  or  honey. 
The  empty  combs  are  laid  flat,  in  a  deep  box  or  tub,  under  a 
colander  or  finely  perforated  pan.  The  syrup,  as  it  falls,  fills 
the  cells  of  comb.  After  the  comb  is  filled  on  both  sides,  we 
have  only  to  hang  it  in  the  hive.  I  have  found  that  by  use  of 
a  fine  spray-nozzle  and  force-pump  we  can  fill  frames  very  fast. 

The  best  time  to  feed  is  just  at  nightfall.    In  this  case  the 


272  THE  bke-kkepkr's  guide; 

feed  will  be  carried  away  before  the  next  day,  and  the  danger 
to  weak  colonies  from  robbing  is  avoided. 

In  feeding-  during  the  cold  days  of  April,  all  should  be 
close  above  the  bees  to  economize  heat.  In  all  feeding,  care  is 
requisite  that  we  may  not  spill  the  feed  about  the  apiary,  as 
this  may,  and  very  generally  will,  induce  robbing. 

If,  through  neglect,  the  bees  are  found  to  be  destitute  of 
stores  in  mid-winter,  it  is  not  best  to  feed  liquid  food,  but  solid 
food,  like  the  Viallon  candy  or  the  Good  mixture  of  honey  and 
sugar,  which  will  be  described  under  the  head  of  shipping 
queens.  Cakes  of  either  of  these  should  be  placed  on  the 
frames  above  the  cluster  of  bees.  Mr.  Root  has  had  excellent 
success  in  feeding  cakes  of  hard  candy  made  as  follows: 
Granulated  sugar  is '  put  in  a  pan  and  a  very  little  water 
added.  This  is  heated  by  placing  on  a  stove,  but  never  in 
direct  contact  with  the  fire.  In  the  latter  case  it  may  be 
burned,  as  shown  by  the  taste,  odor,  or  from  the  fact  that  it 
kills  the  bees.  If  the  pan  is  placed  on  the  stove,  the  contents 
will  never  be  burned.  It  must  be  boiled  until  if  dropped  on  a 
saucer  in  cold  water,  or  if  the  finger  is  wet  in  cold  water,  then 
dipped  in  the  hot  sugar,  and  again  in  water,  the  hard  sugar  is 
brittle.  It  must  be  boiled  until  the  hardened  product  is  brittle, 
or  else  it  will  be  too  soft  and  will  drip.  It  can  now  be  stirred 
until  it  begins  to  thicken  and  then  molded  in  dishes,  or  in  the 
regular  comb  frames.  In  this  last  case  we  lay  the  frame  close 
on  a  board  covered  with  thin  paper,  and  turn  the  thickening 
sugar  into  it.  By  adding  one-fourth  rye-meal  we  have  a  good 
substitute  for  pollen,  which  may  be  used  in  case  of  a  scarcity 
of  the  latter.  Of  course,  frames  of  this  hard  candy  may  be 
hung  right  in  the  hive.  In  a  cellar  or  on  warm  days  outside 
frames  of  honey  may  be  given  to  the  bees. 


OR,    MANUAl*  OF  THB  APIARY.  273 


CHAPTER  IX. 

QUEEN-REARING. 

Suppose  the  queen  is  laying  two  thousand  eggs  a  day,  and 
that  the  full  number  of  bees  is  forty  thousand,  or  even  more— 
though  as  the  bees  are  liable  to  so  many  accidents,  and  as  the 
queen  does  not  always  lay  to  her  full  capacity,  it  is  quite 
probable -that  this  is  about  an  average  number — it  will  be  seen 
that  each  day  that  a  colony  is  without  a  queen  there  is  a  loss 
equal  to  about  one-twentieth  of  the  working  force  of  the  colony, 
and  this  a  compound  loss,  as  the  aggregate  loss  of  any  day  is 
its  special  loss  augmented  by  the  several  losses  of  the  previous 
days.  Now,  as  queens  are  liable  to  die  or  to  become  impotent, 
and  as  the  work  of  increasing  colonies  demands  the  absence  of 
queens,  unless  the  apiarist  has  extra  ones  at  his  command,  it 
is  imperative,  would  we  secure  the  best  results,  ever  to  have  at 
hand  extra  queens.  Queen-rearing  for  the  market  is  often 
very  remunerative,  and  often  may  well  engage  the  apiarist's 
exclusive  attention.     So  the  young  apiarist  must  learn  early 

HOW  TO  REAR   QUEENS. 

As  queens  may  be  needed  early  in  the  spring,  preparations 
looking  to  the  rearing  of  queens  must  commence  early.  As 
soon  as  the  bees  are  able  to  fly  regularly,  we  must  see  that 
they  have  a  supply  of  bee-bread.  If  there  is  not  a  supply  from 
the  past  season,  and  the  locality  of  the  bee-keeper  does  not 
furnish  an  early  supply,  then  place  unbolted  flour  (that  of  rye 
or  oats  is  best)  in  shallow  troughs  near  the  hives.  It  may  be 
well  to  give  the  whole  apiary  the  benefit  of  such  feeding  before 
the  flowers  yield  pollen.  If  the  bees  are  not  attracted  to  this 
we  need  not  add  honey,  etc.,  to  induce  them  to  take  it.  This 
is  a  sure  sign  that  it  is  not  needed.  I  found  that  in  Central 
Michigan  bees  can  usually  gather  pollen  by  the  first  week  of 
April,  which,  I  think,  is  as  early  as  they  should  be  allowed  to 
fly,  and,  in   fact,  as  early  as  they  will  fly  with    sufficient 


274  THB  bee-kekpkr's  guidb  ; 

regularity  to  make  it  pay  to  feed  the  meal.  I  much  question, 
after  some  years  of  experiment,  if  it  is  ever  necessary  at  this 
place  to  g-ive  the  bees  a  substitute  for  pollen.  In  case  of  long 
storms,  the  bee-bread  may  be  exhausted.  I  have  never  known 
such  a  case,  when  the  hard  candy  frames  with  rye  meal 
described  at  the  close  of  the  last  chapter  may  be  hung  in  the 
hive. 

The  best  colony  in  the  apiary — or  if  there  are  several  colo- 
nies of  equal  merit,  one  of  these — should  be  stimulated  to  the 
utmost,  by  daily  feeding  with  warm  syrup,  and  by  increase  of 
brood  taken  from  other  colonies.  As  this  colony  becomes 
strong,  a  comb  containing  drone-cells  should  be  placed  in  the 
center  of  the  brood-nest.  Very  soon  drone-eggs  will  be  laid. 
I  have  often  had  drones  flying  early  in  May.  As  soon  as  the 
drones  commence  to  appear,  remove  the  queen  and  all  eggs 
and  uncapped  brood  from  some  good,  strong  colony,  and  re- 
place it  with  eggs  or  brood  just  hatched  from  the  colony  con- 
taining the  queen  from  which  it  is  desired  to  breed.  By  hav- 
ing placed  one  or  two  bright,  new,  empty  combs  in  the  midst 
of  the  brood-nest  of  this  colony  four  days  beforehand,  we  shall 
have  in  these  combs  just  such  eggs  and  newly  hatching  brood 
as  we  desire,  with  no  brood  that  is  too  old. 

If  we  have  more  than  one  colony  whose  excellence  war- 
rants their  use  to  breed  from,  then  these  eggs  should  be  taken 
from  some  other  than  the  one  which  has  produced  our  drones. 
This  will  prevent  the  close  in-breeding  which  would  neces- 
sarily occur  if  both  queens  and  drones  were  reared  in  the  same 
colony ;  and  which,  though  regarded  as  deleterious  in  the 
breeding  of  all  animals,  should  be  practiced  in  case  one  single 
queen  is  of  decided  superiority  to  all  others  of  the  apiary.  The 
queen  and  the  brood  that  have  been  removed  may  be  used  in 
making  a  new  colony,  in  a  manner  soon  to  be  described  under 
"Dividing  or  Increasing  the  Number  of  Colonies."  This 
queenless  colony  will  immediately  commence  forming  queen- 
cells  (Fig.  93).  Sometimes  these  are  formed  to  the  number  of 
fifteen  or  twenty,  and  in  case  of  the  Syrian  and  Cyprian  races 
fifty  or  sixty,  and  they  are  started  in  a  full,  vigorous  colony  ; 
in  fact,  under  the  most  favorable  conditions.  Cutting  off 
edges  of  the  comb,  or  cutting  holes  in   the  same  where  there 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  27S 

are  eggs  or  larvae  just  hatched,  will  almost  always  insure  the 
starting  of  queen-cells  in  such  places.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
our  queens  are  started  from  eggs,  or  from  larvae  but  just 
hatched,  as  we  have  given  the  bees  no  other,  and  so  they  are 
fed  the  royal  pabulum  from  the  first.  Thus  we  have  met  every 
possible  requisite  to  secure  the  most  superior  queens.  As  we 
removed  all  the  brood  the  nurse-bees  will  have  plenty  of  time, 
and  be  sure  to  care  well  for  these  young  queens.  By  removal 
of  the  queen  we  also  secure  a  large  number  of  cells,  while  if 
we  waited  for  the  bees  to  start  the  cells  preparatory  to  natural 
swarming,  in  which  case  we  secure  the  two  desirable  condi- 
tions named  above,  we  shall  probably  fail  to  secure  so  many 
cells,  and  may  have  to  wait  longer  than  we  can  afford. 

Even  the  apiarist  who  keeps  black  bees  and  desires  no 
others,  or  who  has  only  pure  Italians,  will  still  find  that  it 
pays  to  practice  this  selection,  for,  as  with  the  poultry  fancier, 
or  the  breeder  of  our  larger  domestic  animals,  the  apiarist  is 
ever  observing  some  individuals  of  marked  superiority,  and  he 
who  carefully  selects  such  queens  to  breed  from,  will  be  the 
one  whose  profits  will  make  him  rejoice,  and  whose  apiary  will 
be  worthy  of  all  commendation.  It  occurs  to  me  that  in  this 
matter  of  careful  selection  and  improvement  of  our  bees  by 
breeding,  rests  our  greatest  opportunity  to  advance  the  art  of 
bee-keeping.  As  will  be  patent  to  all,  by  the  above  process  we 
exercise  a  care  in  breeding  which  is  not  surpassed  by  the  best 
breeders  of  horses  and  cattle,  and  which  no  wise  apiarist  will 
ever  neglect.  Nor  do  I  believe  that  Vogel  can  be  correct  in 
thinking  that  drones  give  invariably  one  set  of  character  and 
the  queens  the  others.  This  is  contrary  to  all  experience  in 
breeding  larger  animals. 

It  is  often  urged,  and  I  think  with  truth,  that  we  shall 
secure  better  queens  if  we  wait  for  the  queen-cells  to  be  started 
naturally  by  the  bees,  under  the  swarming  impulse  ;  and  by 
early  feeding  and  adding  brood  from  other  colonies  we  can 
hasten  this  period  ;  yet,  if  we  feed  to  stimulate,  whenever  the 
bees  are  not  storing,  and  keep  the  colony  redundant  in  bees 
of  all  ages  by  adding  plenty  of  capped  brood  from  other  colo- 
nies, we  shall  find  that  our  queens  are  little,  if  any,  inferior, 
even  if  their  production   is  hastened  by  removal  of  a  queen 


276  THE  bkk-kkbpbr's  guidb; 

from  the  hive.  If  these  directions  are  closely  followed,  there 
will  be  little  brood  for  the  bees  to  feed,  and  the  queen-cells 
will  not  suflFer  neglect.  Mr.  Quinby  not  only  advised  this 
course,  but  he  recommended  starting-  queen-cells  in  nuclei ; 
but  he  emphasized  the  importance  of  giving  but  very  little 
brood,  so  nearly  all  the  strength  of  the  nurse-bees  would  be 
expended  on  the  queen-cells. 

After  we  have  removed  all  the  queen-cells,  in  a  manner 
soon  to  be  described,  we  can  again  supply  eggs,  or  newly- 
hatched  larvae— always  from  those  queens  which  close  obser- 
vation has  shown  to  be  the  most  vigorous  and  prolific  in  the 
apiary — and  thus  keep  the  same  queenless  colony  or  colonies 
engaged  in  starting  queen-cells  till  we  have  all  we  desire. 
Yet  we  must  not  fail  to  keep  this  colony  strong  by  the  addition 
of  capped  brood,  which  we  may  take  from  any  colony  as  most 
convenient.  It  is  well  also  to  feed  a  little  each  day  in  case  the 
bees  are  not  gathering.  We  must  be  cautious  that  our  cells 
are  started  from  only  such  brood  as  we  take  from  the  choicest 
queen.  I  have  good  reason  to  believe  that  queen-cells  should 
not  be  started  after  the  first  of  September,  as  I  have  observed 
that  late  queens  are  not  only  less  prolific,  but  shorter  lived. 
In  nature,  late  queens  are  rarely  produced,  and  if  it  is  true 
that  they  are  inferior,  it  might  be  explained  in  the  fact  that 
their  ovaries  remain  so  long  inactive.  As  queens  that  are  so 
long  unmated  are  utterly  worthless,  so,  too,  freshly  mated 
queens  long  inactive  may  become  enfeebled.  However,  some 
of  our  queen-breeders  think  late  queens  just  as  good.  Possibly 
they  may  be,  if  reared  with  the  proper  cautions. 

In  eight  or  ten  days  the  cells  are  capped,  and  the  apiarist 
is  ready  to  form  his  nuclei.  For  the  rearing  of  a  small  num- 
ber of  queens,  the  above  is  very  satisfactory.  If,  however,  we 
are  rearing  Queens  for  the  market,  in  which  we  must  have 
numerous  cells  at  our  command,  and  to  avoid  cutting  comb  and 
to  secure  better  spacing  better  methods  have  been  devised. 
Mr.  Henry  Alley  cut  narrow  single-celled  strips  of  worker- 
comb  with  newly-hatched  larvae,  fastened  these  to  the  top-bar 
of  his  frame,  or  to  bars  inserted  parallel  to  the  top-bar,  and  by 
inserting  the  brimstone  end  of  a  match  and  turning  it  destroys 
each  alternate  larva.     These  put  in  a  colony  dequeened,  but 


OK,   MANUAI,  OK  THE  APIARY.  277 

with  many  young-  bees  and  much  hatching  brood,  gave  him 
good  cells  rightly  spaced.  Others  have  used  drone  comb  cut 
in  the  same  way,  and  in  each  alternate  cell  have  inserted  a 
little  royal  jelly  from  a  queen-cell  about  ready  to  be  capped, 
and  then  added  a  worker-larva.  This  accomplishes  the  same 
purpose,  and  mutilates  no  worker-comb. 

Mr.  Doolittle,  who  has  given  much  time  to  research  in  this 
line,  first  used  the  partially  built  queen-cells  always  to  be 
found  in  every  hive.  These  could  be  fixed  to  comb  or  cross- 
bars at  pleasure,  and  by  placing  in  each  a  particle  of  royal 
jelly  and  a  newly-hatched  larva,  he  secured  good  queen-cells. 
If  these  were  in  a  queenless  colony  with  abundant  young  bees, 
the  best  of  queens  were  reared.  Mr.  Doolittle  found,  what  I 
am  sure  is  true,  that  the  best  queens,  bred  naturally,  were 
those  reared  before  the  natural  swarm  issued,  or  were  always 
started  as  queens  very  early,  if  not  from  the  egg  itself,  were 
reared  with  plenty  of  nurse  or  young  bees  in  the  hive,  and  in 
times,  usually,  of  rapid  gathering  of  honey.  Mr.  Doolittle 
found  that  he  could  not  always  get  his  queen-cups  or  incipient 
queen-cells  when     needed,   and    soon   invented  the  valuable 

Fig.  129. 


Form  for  making  Cups. — From  A.  I.  Moot  Co. 

method  of  dipping  and  producing  artificial  cups  at  pleasure. 
He  describes  the  whole  method  of  discovery  in  his  valuable 
and  very  interesting  book.  The  mould,  or  dipping-stick  (Fig. 
129),  is  like  a  rake-tooth  with  one  end  fashioned  so  as  just  to 
fit  into  a  good,  normal  queen-cell.  This  is  immersed  first  in 
water,  then  for  nine-sixteenths  of  an  inch  into  melted  wax 
which  is  kept  melted  by  use  of  a  lamp.  It  is  inserted  seven  or 
eight  times  alternately  in  the  water  and  in  the  wax,  but  for  a 
less  and  less  distance  each  time  in  the  latter.  This  makes  the 
cup  heavy  and  thick  at  the  bottom  and  thin  at  the  top.  A 
twirling  motion,  when  held  at  various  angles,  makes  the  walls 


278  THE  bee-keeper's  guide  ; 

of  the  cup  uniform.  At  least  a  little  pressure  loosens  the  cell 
from  the  stick,  when  it  is  dipped  once  more  and  stuck  to  the 
strip  (Fig-.  130),  which  will  hold  it  in  the  frame.  Usually  there 
are  twelve  or  fourteen  to  one  strip.  This  can  be  fastened 
close  below  the  comb  in  a  partly  filled  frame.  A  little  royal 
jelly  from  a  queen-cell  just  ready  to  be  capped  is  now  inserted 
in  each  cup,  and  a  larva  less   than   one  day  old,  always  with 

Fig.  130. 


DooUtth  CeU-Citpg.—From  George  W.  York  *  Co. 

food  about  it,  is  transferred  to  this  in  precisely  the  same  posi- 
tion it  had  in  the  worker-cell.  An  ear-spoon  or  quill  toothpick, 
cut  and  bent  into  a  spoon-like  form,  or  hard-wood  stick  of 
similar  shape,  is  excellent  to  transfer  the  jelly  and  larvae. 
One  queen-cell  will  furnish  enough  jelly  for  from  eight  to 
twelve  or  fourteen  cells.  Of  course,  the  larvae  will  be  taken 
from  the  best  queen  in  the  apiary.  To  get  these  cells  cared 
for,  the  frame  is  put  in  an  upper  story  of  a  strong  colony  with 
a  queen-excluding  honey-board  (Fig.  91)  between  two  frames 
full  of  brood  in  all  stages.  They  can  be  built  out  and  finished 
below  by  using  a  perforated-zinc  division-board  (Fig.  88,  92), 
which  will  surely  keep  the  queen  away.  It  should  be  placed 
between  the  same  kind  of  frames  as  when  put  above.  In  ten 
or  twelve  days  we  have  probably  twelve  very  fine  capped 
queen-cells  which  can  be  easily  removed. 

Mr.  W.  H.  Pridgen,  of  North  Carolina,  has  improved  Mr. 
Doolittle's  scheme  by  a  wholesale  method  of  forming  the  cups. 
He  fastens  twelve  or  more  of   the  dipping-sticks  to  a  strip  of 


OR,  MANUAL  OF   THE  APIARY. 


279 


wood  and  dips  all  of  them  at  once.  He  even  suggests  that 
these  may  be  mounted  on  the  circumference  of  a  wheel  which 
carries  them  alternately  through  the  water  and  wax  and  auto- 
matically raises  so  as  to  preserve  the  right  depth  in  the  melted 
wax  each  time.  They  may  be  inserted  in  close-filling  holes  in 
a  narrow  board  so  as  to  be  quite  easily  moved  up  and 
down.  These  are  dipped  till  the  cups  are  satisfactory,  then  all 
dipped  once  more  at  the  end,  touched  to  a  narrow  board  (Fig. 
131)  to  which  they  will  adhere.    Then   by  wetting  the  tips  and 

Fig. 131. 


Pridgen  Cell-Cups.—From  Gewge  W.  York  &  Co. 

board,  the  dipping-sticks  are  easily  removed  one  at  a  time 
(Fig.  131).  Each  dipping-stick  is  five-eighths  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  It  commences  to  taper  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch 
from  the  end,  tapers  strongly  one-eighth  of  an  inch,  then  grad- 
ually to  the  end.  The  strips  with  cells  adhering  are  one-half 
inch  square,  and  are  fastened  in  frames  by  a  single  wire  nail 
at  each  end  passing  through  the  side  of  the  frame  and  into  the 
end  of  the  square  piece.  Comb  may  be  close  above  them.  As 
already  explained,  each  worker  brood-cell  is  lined  with  a  sec- 
ond cell  consisting  of  many  cocoons.     By  cutting  off  the  walls 


280 


THE  BEE-KEEPER'S  GUIDE; 


of  old  dark  comb  to  within  an  eighth  of  an  inch  of  the  base  by 
use  of  a  sharp,  warmed  knife,  these  inner  cells,  which  Mr. 
Pridgen  and  others  call  cocoons,  may  be  easily  looseneci  by 
bending  the  comb.  These  were  first  used  by  the  Atchleys. 
He  loosens  them  in  this  way,  when  they  contain  larvae  about  a 
day  old,  from  his  best  queen.  By  pushing  into  these  a  trans- 
ferring stick,  concave  at  the  end  (Fig.  132),  he  can  raise  the 
inner  cell-larva,  food  and  all,  and  insert  them  into  a  cup.  This 
is  a  quick  way  to  people  the  cells  with  larvae.  Mr.  Pridgen 
often  bores  small  five-sixteenth  inch  holes  nearly  through  the 
stick  to  receive  the  cups,  waxes  the  stick,  and  then  presses  the 
newly-formed  cups  into  these.  In  this  case  he  pushes  them  in 
with  a  stick  much  like  the  dipping-sticks,  only  longer  and  t 
trifle^maller.  In  these  may  be  placed  a  little  jelly  and  the 
larvae  as  already  described.     Mr.  Pridgen   places  these  for  a 

Fig.  132. 


Pridgen  Tran^ferrUig- Stick  (full  UtigtJi  and  size.) 
— Frvm  George  W.  York  &  Co. 

few  hours  in  a  hive  which  was  filled  with  brood  twelve  days 
before,  and  placed  with  a  queen-excluder  on  another  colony. 
When  he  wishes  to  give  the  cups  and  larvae,  he  removes  the 
upper  hive,  shakes  the  bees  that  they  may  soon  find  that  they 
are  queenless,  shuts  them  in  over  a  broadly  ventilated  bottom- 
board,  and  in  a  few  hours  gives  them  the  cups.  They  accept 
the  care  of  these  at  once.  He  has  had  thirty-six  received  and 
fed  in  this  way.  He  soon  removes  these  to  an  upper  story  over 
a  colony,  with  the  queen-excluder,  of  course,  between  them. 
In  from  ten  to  twelve  days  he  has  a  fine  lot  of  cells  for  the 
nuclei.  Mr.  Pridgen  puts  a  comb  partly-filled  with  water  in 
the  hive  that  is  shut  up.  As  we  have  seen,  this  would  be  a 
time  when  water  would  be  very  essential.  The  bees  are  con- 
fined and  worried.  While  some  queen-breeders  still  use  the 
Alley  method,  most  now  use  the  Doolittle,  and  most  will  soon 
adopt  the  Pridgen  improvement,  as  many  have  done  already. 


OR,   MANUAI<  OF  THE   APIARY.  281 

NUCI^KI. 

A  nucleus  is  simply  a  miniature  colony  of  bees — a  hive 
and  colony  on  a  small  scale — for  the  purpose  of  rearing-  and 
keeping  queens.     We  want  the  queens,  but  can   afford  to  each 
nucleus  only  a  few  bees.    The  nucleus  hive,  if  we  use  frames 
not  more  then  one  foot  square,  need  be  nothing  more  than  an 
ordinary  hive,  with  chamber  confined  by  a  division-board  to 
the  capacity  of  three  frames.     If  our  frames  are  large,  then  it 
may  be  thought  best  to  construct  special  nucleus  hives.    These 
are  small  hives,  which  need  not  be  more  than   six  inches  each 
way,  that  is,  in   length,  breadth   and  thickness,  and  made  to 
contain  from  four  to  six  frames  of  corresponding  size.    These 
frames  are  filled  with  comb.     I  have  for  many  years  used  the 
first-named  style  of  nucleus  hive,  and  have  found  it  advanta- 
geous to  have  a  few  long  hives  made,  each  to  contain   five 
chambers  ;  while  each  chamber  is  entirely  separate  from  the 
one  next  to  it,  is  five  inches  wide,  and  is  covered  by  a  separate, 
close-fitting  board,  and  the  whole  by  a  common  cover.     The 
entrances  to  the  two  end  chambers  are  at  the  ends  near  the 
same  side  of  the  hive.     The  middle  chamber  has  its  entrance 
at  the  middle  of  the  side  near  which   are  the  end  entrances, 
while  the  other  two  chambers  open  on  the  opposite  side,  as  far 
apart  as  possible.     The  outside  might  be  painted  different  col- 
ors to  correspond  with   the  divisions,  if  thought  necessary, 
especially  on  the  side  with  two  openings.    Yet  I  have  never 
taken  this  precaution,  nor  have  I  been  troubled  much  by  losing 
queens.      They    have    almost    invariably  entered  their  own 
apartments  when  returning  from  their  wedding-tour.     It  seems 
from  observation  that  the  queen  is  more  influenced  by  position 
than  by  color  of  hive  in   returning  to  it  from  mating.     "Who 
that  has  watched  his  bees  after  moving  a  hive  a  little  one  side 
of  its  previous  position — even  if  only  a  few  inches — can  doubt 
but  that  the  same  is  true  of  the  worker-bees.     These  hives  I 
use  to  keep  queens  in  during  the  summer.     Except  the  apiarist 
engage  in  queen-rearing  extensively  as  a  business,  I  doubt  the 
propriety  of  building  such  -special   nucleus  hives.     The  usual 
hives  are  good  property  to  have  in   the  apiary,  will  soon  be 
needed,  and  may  be  economically  used    for  all  nuclei.    In 


282  THB    BEB-KKBPER'S  GUIDfl; 

spring  I  make  use  of  my  hives  which  are  prepared  for  pro- 
spective summer  use,  for  my  nuclei. 

Mr.  E.  M.  Hayhurst,  one  of  our  best  queen-breeders,  uses 
the  full-size  Langstroth  frame,  in  full-sized  hives,  for  queen- 
rearing,  while  Mr.  Root  uses  the  same  frames  in  small  special 
hives  which  hold  three  frames.  These  (Fig.  119)  he  fastens 
high  up  on  his  grape-vine  trellises,  just  back  of  his  other  hives, 
which  can  be  used  for  seats  as  he  works  with  the  nuclei. 

We  now  go  to  different  hives  of  the  apiary,  and  take  out 
three  frames  for  each  nucleus,  at  least  one  of  which  has  brood, 
and  so  on,  till  there  are  as  many  nuclei  prepared  as  we  have 
queen-cells  to  dispose  of.  The  bees  should  be  left  adhering  to 
the  frames  of  comb,  only  we  must  be  certain  that  the  queen  is 
not  among  them,  as  this  would  take  the  queen  from  where  she 
is  most  needed,  and  would  lead  to  the  sure  destruction  of  one 
queen-cell.  To  be  sure  of  this,  we  never  take  such  frames  till 
we  have  seen  the  queen,  that  we  may  be  sure  she  is  left  behind. 
It  is  well  to  close  the  nucleus  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours, 
so  that  enough  bees  will  surely  remain  to  cover  the  combs, 
and  so  prevent  the  brood  from  becoming  chilled.  Another 
good  way  to  form  nuclei,  is  to  remove  the  queen  from  a  full 
colony,  and  as  soon  as  she  is  missed  use  all  the  frames  and 
bees  for  nuclei.  "We  form  them  as  already  described.  In  this 
way  we  are  not  troubled  to  find  but  one  queen.  If  any  desire 
the  nuclei  with  smaller  frames,  these  frames  must  of  course 
be  filled  with  comb,  and  then  we  can  shake,  bees  immediately 
into  the  nuclei,  till  they  have  suflBcient  to  preserve  a  proper 
temperature.  Such  special  articles  about  the  apiary  are  costly 
and  inconvenient.  I  believe  that  I  should  use  hives  even  with 
the  largest  frames  for  nuclei.  Iv.  C.  Root,  who  uses  the  large 
Quinby  frame,  uses  the  same  for  his  nuclei.  In  this  case  we 
should  need  to  give  more  bees.  Twenty-four  hours  after  we 
have  formed  this  nucleus,  we  are  ready  to  insert  the  queen-cell. 
We  may  do  it  sooner,  even  at  once,  but  always  at  the  risk  of 
having  the  cell  destroyed.  To  insert  the  queen-cell— for  we 
are  now  to  give  one  to  each  nucleus,  so  we  can  never  form 
more  nuclei  than  we  have  capped  queen-cells — the  old  way  was 
to  cut  it  out,  using  a  sharp  thin-bladed  knife,  commencing  to 
cut  on  either  side  the  base  of    the  cell,  at  least  one-half  inch 


OR,    MANUAI.  O^  THE   APIARY. 


183 


distant,  for  we  tnusi  not  in  ike  least  compress  the  cell,  then  cut- 
ting up  and  out  for  two  inches,  then  across  opposite  the  cell. 
This  leaves  the  cell  attached  to  a  wedge-shaped  piece  of  comb 
(Fig.  133),  whose  apex  is  next  to  the  cell.  If  we  get  our  cells 
by  the  Doolittle  or  other  improved  methods,  we  can  easily  cut 
down  and  pry  each  cell  ofiF.  A  similar  cut  in  the  middle  frame 
of  the  nucleus,  which,  in  case  of  the  regular  frames,  is  the  one 
containing  brood,  will  furnish  an  opening  to  receive  the  wedge 
containing    the    cell.      The    comb   should   also   be  cut  away 

Fig.  133. 


Grafted  Queai-Cell—From  A.  I.  Bool  Co. 


Quec?t-Cell  with  Hinged  Cap. 
From  A.  I.  Jioot  Co. 


beneath  (Fig.  133),  so  that  the  cell  can  not  be  compressed.  Mr. 
Root  advises  a  circular  cut  (Fig.  133).  Of  late  I  have  just 
placed  the  cell  between  two  frames,  and  succeed  just  as  well. 
If  two  or  more  fine  cells  are  so  close  together  that  separation 
is  impossible,  then  all  may  be  inserted  in  a  nucleus.  By  close 
watching  afterward  we  may  save  all  the  queens.  If  we  have 
used  bright  new  comb  as  advised  above,  we  can  see  the  queen 
move  in  the  cell  if  she  is  ready  to  come  out,  by  holding  it 
between  us  and  the  sun,  and  may  uncap  such  cells,  and  let  the 


284 


THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 


queen  run  in  at  the  entrance  of  any  queenless  hive  or  nucleus 
at  once.  In  selecting  combs  for  queen-cells,  we  should  reject 
any  that  have  drone-comb.  Bees  sometimes  start  queen-cells 
over  drone-larvae.  Such  cells  are  smoother  than  the  others, 
and  of  course  are  worthless. 

After  all  the  nuclei  have  received  their  cells  and  bees,  they 
have  only  to  be  set  in  a  shady  place  and  watched  to  see  that 

Fig.  134. 


Entrance-Guard. 

suflScient  bees  remain.  Should  too  many  leave,  give  them 
more  by  removing  the  cover  and  shaking  a  frame  loaded  with 
bees  over  the  nucleus  ;  keep  the  opening  nearly  closed,  and 
cover  the  bees  so  as  to  preserve  the  heat.    The  main  candon 

Fig.  135. 


Drone-Trap.— From  A.  I.  Boot  Co, 


in  this  is  to  be  sure  not  to  get  any  old  queen  in  a  nucleus.  In 
two  or  three  days  the  queens  will  appear,  and  in  a  week  longer 
will  have  become  fecundated,  and  that,  too,  in  case  of  the  first 
queens,  by  selected  drones,  for  as  yet  there  are  no  others  in 
the  apiary.  I  can  not  over-estimate  the  advantage  of  always 
having  extra  queens.  To  secure  mating  from  selected  drones, 
later,  we  must  cut  all  drone-comb  from  inferior  polonies,  so 
that  they  shall  rear  no  drones.  If  drone-larv^ae  are  in  uncapped 
cells,  they  may  be  killed  by  sprinkling  the'  comb  with  cold 
water.  By  giving  the  jet  of  water  some  force,  as  may  be  easily 
done  by  use  of  a  fountain  pump,  they  may  be  washed  out,  or 


OJtf  MANUAL  OF  THE   APIARY.  285 

we  may  throw  them  out  with   the  extractor,  and  then  use  the 
comb  for  starters  in  our  sections. 

It  is  very  important  that  those  who  rear  queens  to  sell 
shall  have  no  near  neighbors  who  keep  bees,  and  shall  keep 
only  very  superior  bees,  that  undesirable  mating-  maybe 
prevented.  If  one  has  neighbors  who  keep  bees,  he  can  see 
that  they  keep  only  the  best,  or  possibly  he  can  rear  his  queens 
before  others  have  drones  flying.  He  can  also  get  his  neigh- 
bor to  use  the  Alley  drone-trap  (Fig.  135).  If  drones  are  flying 
from  undesirable  colonies,  they  can  be  kept  from  leaving  the 
hive  by  use  of  the  entrance-guards  (Fig.  134),  or  may  be  cap- 
tured or  destroyed  by  use  of  the  Alley  drone-trap  (Fig.  135). 
These  are  made  of  the  perforated-zinc,  and  while  thfey  permit 
the  passage  of  the  workers,  they  restrain  the  queen  and  drones. 

Fig.  136. 


Queen-Cage.— From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 


The  spaces  in  these  are  .165.  In  England  they  make  them  .180 
of  an  inch,  but  small  queens  may  pass  through  these  larger 
spaces.  By  shaking  all  the  bees  in  front  of  the  hive,  we  can, 
by  use  of  these,  soon  weed  out  all  the  drones.  With  these  in 
front  of  hive,  we  can  keep  the  queen  from  leaving  with  a 
swarm.  Occasionally,  however,  a  queen  will  pass  through 
unless  the  smaller  spaced  zinc  is  used.     By  keeping  empty 


286  THB  BKK-KEEPER  S  GUIDE; 

frames  and  empty  cells  in  the  nuclei,  the  bees  may  be  kept 
active  ;  yet  with  so  few  bees  one  can  not  expect  very  much 
from  the  nuclei.  After  cutting  all  the  queen-cells  from  our 
old  hive,  we  can  again  insert  eggs,  as  above  suggested,  and 
obtain  another  lot  of  cells,  or,  if  we  have  a  suflScient  number, 
we  can  leave  a  single  queen-cell,  and  this  colony  will  soon  be 
the  happy  possessor  of  a  queen,  and  just  as  flourishing  as  if 
the  even  tenor  of  its  ways  had  not  been  disturbed.  If  it  is 
preferred,  the  bees  of  this  colony  may  be  used  in  forming  the 
nuclei,  in  which  case  there  is  no  danger  of  getting  a  queen  in 
any  nucleus  thus  formed,  or  of  having  the  queen-cells  destroyed. 
"We  can  thus  start  seven  or  eight  nuclei  very  quickly.  Mr. 
Doolittle  forms  nuclei  by  disturbing  the  bees — jarring  the 
hive — till  they  fill  with  honey,  then  shakes  them  into  a  hive  or 
box  and  sets  them  in  a  dark  room  or  cellar  for  twenty-four 
hours.  Then  they  will  always,  he  says,  accept  a  queen-cell  or 
a  virgin  queen  of  any  age  at  once.  A  full  colony  may  be 
usually  re-queened  in  the  same  way. 

OUEEN   LAMP-NURSERY. 

This  aid  to  bee-keeping  was  first  used  by  F.  R.  Shaw,  of 
Chatham,  Ohio.  The  double  wall  enclosing  water  was  the 
invention  of  A.  I.  Root.  It  is  substantially  a  tin  hive,  with 
two  walls  enclosing  a  water-tight  space  an  inch  wide,  which, 
when  in  use,  is  filled  with  water  through  a  hole  at  the  top. 
Each  nursery  may  hold  from  six  to  eight  frames.  Some  pre- 
fer to  have  special  frames  for  this  nursery,  each  of  which 
contains  several  close  chambers.  The  queen-cells  are  cut  out 
and  put  in  these  chambers. 

By  use  of  a  common  kerosene  lamp  placed  under  this  nur- 
sery, the  temperature  must  be  kept  from  80  degrees  F.  to  100 
degrees  F.  By  placing  the  frames  with  capped  queen-cells  in 
this,  the  queens  develop  as  well  as  if  in  a  hive  or  nucleus.  If 
the  young  queens,  just  from  the  cell,  are  introduced  into  a 
queenless  colony  or  nucleus,  as  first  shown  by  Mr.  I^angstroth, 
they  are  usually  well  received.  Unless  one  is  rearing  a  great 
many  queens,  this  lamp-nursery  is  not  desirable,  as  we  still 
have  to  use  the  nucleus  to  get  the  young  queens  fecundated, 
have  to  watch  carefully  to  get  the  young  queens  as  soon  as 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY. 


287 


they  appear,  must  guard  it  carefully  as  moths  are  apt  to  get 
in,  and,  finally,  unless  great  pains  are  taken,  this  method  will 
give  us  inferior  queens.  Mr.  W.  Z.  Hutchinson,  one  of  our 
best  queen-breeders,  thinks  verj'  highly  of  the  lamp-nursery. 

Some  bee-keepers  use  a  cage  (Fig.  136)  with  projecting 
pins  which  are  pushed  into  the  comb,  so  that  they  hold  the 
cage.  A  cell  is  put  into  each  of  these,  and  then  they  may  be 
put  into  any  hive.  Of  course  the  bees  can  not  destroy  the  cell, 
as  they  can   not  get  at  it.     Dr.  Jewell  Davis'  queen-nursery 

Fig.  137. 


West  Cell-Protector.— From  A.  I.  Soot  Co. 


consists  of  a  frame  filled  with  such  cages,  which  can  be  hung 
in  any  hive.  I  have  tried  both,  and  prefer  this  to  the  lamp- 
nursery.  The  West  cell-protector  (Fig.  137)  is  excellent.  The 
cell  can  not  be  destroyed,  and  as  the  protector  is  open  at  the 
end  the  queen  comes  forth  into  the  nucleus,  and  is  almost  sure 
to  be  well  received.  This  is  an  excellent  way  to  insert  queen- 
cells.  Mr.  Root  recommends  putting  a  little  honey  at  the  end 
of  the  cell,  so  the  queen  will  get  this  at  once.  Mr.  Doolittle, 
to  introduce  virgins,  puts  them  in  a  cage  with  candy,  and 
covers  the  opening  with  paper,  as  well  as  candy,  so  as  to  delay 
her  egress.  Rarely  they  fail  to  eat  through  this,  when  they 
must  be  liberated. 


288  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

SHAI,!,  WE  CLIP  THE  QUEEN'S  WING  ? 

In  the  above  operation,  as  in  many  other  manipulations 
of  the  hive,  we  shall  often  gain  sight  of  the  queen,  and 
can,  if  we  desire,  clip  her  wing,  if  she  has  met  the  drone  ;  but 
never  before,  that  in  no  case  she  shall  lead  the  colony  away  to 
parts  unknown.  This  is  an  old  practice,  for  Virgil  speaks  of 
retaining  the  bees  by  tearing  off  the  wings  of  "the  king." 
This  does  not  injure  the  queen,  as  some  have  claimed.  General 
Adair  once  stated  that  such  treatment  injured  the  queen,  as  it 
cut  off  some  of  the  air-tubes,  which  view  was  approved  by  so 
excellent  a  naturalist  as  Dr.  Packard.  Yet  I  am  sure  that  this 
is  all  a  mistake.  The  air-tube  and  blood-vessel,  as  we  have 
seen,  go  to  the  wings  to  carry  nourishment  to  these  members. 
With  the  wing  goes  the  necessity  of  nourishment  and  the  need 
of  the  tubes.  As  well  say  that  the  amputation  of  the  human 
leg  or  arm  would  enfeeble  the  constitution,  as  it  would  cut  off 
the  supply  of  blood. 

Many  of  our  best  apiarists  have  practiced  this  clipping  of 
the  queen's  wing  for  years.  Yet  these  queens  show  no  diminu- 
tion of  vigor ;  we  should  suppose  they  would  be  even  more 
vigorous,  as  useless  organs  are  always  nourished  at  the 
expense  of  the  organism,  and,  if  entirely  useless,  are  seldom 
long  continued  by  nature.  The  ants  set  us  an  example  in  this 
matter,  as  they  bite  the  wings  off  their  queens,  after  mating 
has  transpired.  They  mean  that  the  queen  shall  remain  at 
home,  nolen  volens,  and  why  shall  not  we  require  the  same  of 
the  queen-bee  ?  Were  it  not  for  the  necessity  of  swarming  in 
nature,  we  should  doubtless  have  been  anticipated  in  this  mat- 
ter by  Nature  herself. 

Some  of  our  first  apiarists  think  that  queens  \yith  wings 
clipped  are  not  as  acceptable  to  the  other  bees.  I  have  now 
had  experience  for  thirty  years  in  this  practice,  and  have  yet 
to  see  the  first  indication  that  the  above  is  true.  Still,  if  the 
queen  essays  to  go  with  the  swarm,  and  if  the  apiarist  is  not 
at  hand,  she  will  sometimes  be  lost,  never  regaining  the  hive  ; 
but  in  this  case  the  bees  will  be  saved,  as  they  will  return  with- 
out fail.  Many  of  our  farmers  are  now  keeping  bees  with 
marked  success  and  large  profits,  who  could  not  continue  at 


OR,   MANUAL  OJ?  THB  APIARY.  289 

all  except  for  this  practice.  Mr.  George  Grimm  kept  about 
eighty  colonies  of  bees,  and  said  he  worked  only  ten  days  in 
the  year.  But  he  clipped  the  queens'  wings,  and  his  wife  did 
the  hiving. 

Some  apiarists  clip  one  primary  wing  the  first  year,  the 
secondary  the  second  year,  the  other  primary  the  third,  and,  if 
age  of  the  queen  permits,  the  remaining  wing  the  fourth  year. 
Yet,  such  data,  with  other  matters  of  interest  and  importance, 
better  be  kept  on  a  slate  or  card,  and  firmly  attached  to  the 
hive,  or  else  kept  in  a  record  opposite  the  nurhber  of  the  hive. 
The  time  required  to  find  the  queen  is  sufficient  argument 
against  the  "  queen-wing  record."  This  is  not  an  argument 
against  the  once  clipping  of  the  queen's  wings,  for,  in  the 
nucleus  hives,  queens  are  readily  found,  and  even  in  full  colo- 
nies this  is  not  very  difficult,  especially  if  we  keep  Italians  or 
any  other  races  of  yellow  bees.  It  will  be  best,  even  though 
we  have  to  look  up  black  queens  in  full  colonies.  The  loss  of 
one  good  colony,  or  the  vexatious  trouble  of  separating  two  or 
three  swarms  which  had  clustered  together,  and  finding  each 
queen,  or  the  hiving  of  a  colony  perched  high  up  on  some 
towering  tree,  would  soon  vanquish  this  argument  of  time. 

To  clip  the  queen's  wing,  which  we  must  never  do  until 
she  commences  to  lay  eggs,  take  hold  of  her  wings  with  the 
right  thumb  and  index  finger — never  grasp  her  body,  especially 
her  abdomeny^%t\\\%vt\l\  be  very  apt  to  injure  her — raise  her 
off  the  comb,  then  turn  from  the  bees,  place  her  gently  on  the 
left  hand,  and  press  on  her  feet  with  the  left  thumb  sufficiently 
to  hold  her.  Now  with  the  right  hand,  by  use  of  a  small, 
delicate  pair  of  scissors,  cut  off  about  one-half  of  one  of  the 
front  or  primary  wings.  This  method  prevents  any  movement 
of  legs  or  wings,  and  is  easy  and  quick.  I  think  Mr.  Root 
advises  grasping  the  queen  by  the  thorax.  I  prefer  the  method 
given  here. 

Some  bee-keepers— inexperienced  they  must  be — complain 
that  queens  thus  handled  often  receive  a  foreign  scent,  and 
are  destroyed  by  the  worker-bees.  I  have  clipped  hundreds 
and  never  lost  one. 

LAYING   WORKERS. 

We  have  already  described  laying  workers.     As  these  can 


290  THB  BEE-KEBPER'S  GUIDE  ; 

only  produce  unimpreginated  eggs,  they  are,  of  course,  value- 
less, and  unless  superseded  by  a  queen  will  soon  cause  the 
destruction  of  the  colony.  As  their  presence  often  prevents 
the  acceptance  of  cells  or  a  queen,  by  the  common  workers, 
they  are  a  serious  pest.  The  absence  of  worker-brood,  and 
the  abundant  and  careless  deposition  of  eggs — some  cells  being 
skipped,  while  others  have  received  several  eggs — are  pretty 
sure  indications  of  their  presence.    The  condition  that  favors 

Fig.  138. 


Hive-Scraper. — Original. 


these  pests,  is  continued  absence  of  a  queen  or  means  to  pro- 
duce one  ;  thus  they  are  very  likely  to  appear  in  nuclei.  They 
seem  more  common  with  the  Cyprian  and  Syrian  bees. 

To  rid  a  colony  of  these,  unite  it  with  some  colony  with  a 
good  queen,  after  which  the  colony  may  be  divided  if  very 
strong.  Simply  exchanging  places  of  a  colony  with  a  laying 
worker,  and  a  good,  strong  colony  will  often  cause  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  wrong-doer.  In  this  case,  brood  should  be  given  to 
the  colony  which  had  the  laying  worker,  that  they  may  rear  a 
queen  ;  or  better,  a  queen-cell  or  queen  should  be  given  them. 
Caging  a  queen  in  a  hive,  with  a  laying  worker,  for  thirty-six 
hours,  will  almost  always  cause  the  bees  to  accept  her.  We 
may  also  use  the  Doolittle  candy  cage  with  the  opening  covered 
with  paper.  Her  escape  is  so  tardy  that  she  will  be  safe. 
Shaking  the  bees  off  the  frames  two  rods  from  the  hive,  will 
often  rid  them  of  the  counterfeit  queen,  after  which  they  will 
receive  a  queen-cell  or  a  queen.  But  prevention  is  best  of  all. 
We  should  never  have  a  colony  or  nucleus  without  either  a 
queen  or  means  to  rear  one.  It  is  well  to  keep  young  brood  in 
our  nuclei  at  all  times.  Queens  reared  from  brood  four  days 
from  the  egg  are  often  drone-layers,  and  never  desirable. 


OR,   MANIJAI,  OF  THB  APIARY. 


291 


In  all  manipulation  with  the  bees  we  need  something  to 
loosen  the  frames.  Many  use  a  chisel  or  small  iron  claw.  I 
have  found  an  iron  scraper  (Fig-.  138),  which  I  had  made  by  a 
blacksmith,  very  convenient.  It  serves  to  loosen  the  frames, 
draw  tacks,  and  scrape  off  propolis.  It  would  be  easy  to  add 
the  hammer. 

QUEKN-RKGISTKR  OR  APIARY  REGISTER. 

With  more  than  a  half  dozen  colonies  it  is  not  easy  to 
know  just  the  condition  of  each  colony.  Something  to  mark 
the  date  of  each  examination,  and  the  condition  of  the  colony 


Fig.  139. 

QUEEN  KEOISTER. 

EGGS. 

Nn. 

MISSING.  BROOD. 

NOT  APPROVED,     o  CELL. 

APPROVED.  HACTHED 

LAYING. 

DIRECTIONS.— Tack  the  card  on  a  conspicuous  part  of 
the  Hive  or  Nucleus;  then,  witli  a  pair  of  plvcrs,  force  a 
^common  pin  into  the  center  of  each  circle,  after  it  is  bent 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  head  will  press  securelv  on  any 
figure  or  word.  These  Cards  mailed  free,  at  6c.  per  doz. 
or  40c.  per  hundred. 
Use  tinned  or  galvanized  tacks;  they  will  stand  rain,  &c. 


^31.      i.^j;. 


V. 


1?^ 


''"''^■siwix^^ 


MARCH. 


OCT. 
SEPT. 
AUG. 


APRIL. 
MAY. 
JUNE 
JULY. 

Root,  Medina,  O. 


at  that  time  is  very  desirable.  Mr.  Root  furnishes  the  Queen- 
Register  (Fig.  139).  With  this  it  is  very  easy  to  mark  the  date 
of  examination  of  each  hive,  and  the  condition  of  the  colony  at 
the  time.  Mr.  Hutchinson  prefers  this.  Mr.  Newman  fur- 
nished an  Apiary  Register  which  served  admirably  for  the 
same  purpose.  Each  hive  is  numbered.  Dr.  Miller  tacks  a 
small  square  piece  of  tin  bearing  the  number  in  black  paint  to 


292  THB  bee-kkkpkr's  guide; 

each  hive.  A  corresponding  number  in  the  Register  gives  us 
all  desired  facts.  We  have  only  to  note  down  at  the  time  the 
condition  of  each  colony  and  date  of  examination  in  the  Regis- 
ter, Mr.  Root  prefers  a  slate  whose  position  on  the  cover  of 
the  hive  shows  the  condition  of  colony,  and  dates  can  be  writ- 
ten on  it. 


OR,  MANUAI,  Of  THE  APIARY.  293 


CHAPTER  X, 

INCREASE  OF  COIvONIES. 

No  subject  will  be  of  more  interest  to  the  beginner  than 
that  of  increasing  colonies.  He  has  one  or  two,  he  desires  as 
many  more,  or,  if  very  aspiring-,  as  many  hundred,  and  if  a 
Jones,  a  Hetherington,  or  a  Harbison,  as  many  thousand.  This 
is  a  subject,  too,  that  may  well  engage  the  thought  and  study 
of  men  of  no  inconsiderable  experience.  I  believe  that  many 
veterans  are  not  practicing  the  best  methods  in  obtaining  an 
increase  of  colonies. 

Before  proceeding  to  name  the  ways,  or  to  detail  the 
methods,  let  me  state  and  enforce  that  it  is  always  safest,  and 
generally  wisest,  especially  for  the  beginner,  to  be  content 
with  doubling,  or  certainly  with  tripling,  his  number  of  colo- 
nies each  season.  Especially  let  all  remember  the  motto : 
"  Keep  all  colonies  strong." 

There  are  two  ways  to  increase  :  The  natural,  known  as 
swarming,  already  described  under  natural  history  of  the  bee ; 
and  the  artificial,  improperly  styled  artificial  swarming.  This 
is  also  called,  and  more  properly,  "  dividing." 

SWARMING. 

In  case  of  the  specialist,  or  in  case  some  one  can  be  near 
by  to  watch  the  bees,  swarming  is  without  doubt  the  best  way 
to  increase.  Therefore,  the  apiarist  should  be  always  ready 
with  both  means  and  knowledge  for  immediate  action.  Of 
course,  necessary  hives  were  all  secured  the  previous  winter, 
and  will  never  be  wanting.  Neglect  to  provide  hives  before 
the  swarming  season  is  convincing  proof  that  the  wrong  pur- 
suit has  been  chosen. 

If,  as  I  have  advised,  the  queen  has  her  wing  clipped,  the 
matter  becomes  very  simple,  in  fact,  so  much  simplified  that 
were  there  no   other  argument,  this  would  be  sufificient  to 


i94  THE  BKK-KEEPBR'S  GUIt)E  ; 

recommend  the  practice  of  clipping  the  queen's  wing.  Now, 
if  several  swarms  cluster  together,  we  have  not  to  separate 
them  ;  they  will  usually  separate  of  themselves  and  return  to 
their  old  homes.  To  migrate  without  the  queen  means  death, 
and  life  is  sweet  even  to  bees,  and  is  not  willingly  to  be  given 
up  except  for  home  and  kindred.  Even  if  they  all  enter 
one  hive,  the  queens  are  not  with  them,  and  it  is  very  easy  to 
divide  them  as  desired.  Neither  has  the  apiarist  to  climb 
trees,  io  secure  his  bees  from  bushy  trunks,  from  off  the  lattice- 
work or  pickets  of  his  fence,  from  the  very  top  of  a  tall,  slen- 
der, fragile  fruit-tree,  or  other  most  inconvenient  places.  Nor 
will  he  even  be  tempted  to  pay  his  money  for  patent  non- 
swarming  hivers  or  patent  swarm-catchers.  He  knows  his 
bees  will  return  to  their  old  quarters,  so  he  is  not  perturbed  by 
the  fear  of  loss  or  plans  to  capture  the  unapproachable.  It 
requires  no  effort  "  to  possess  his  soul  in  patience."  If  he 
wishes  to  increase,  he  steps  out,  takes  the  queen  by  the 
remaining  wings,  as  she  emerges  from  the  hive,  soon  after  the 
bees  commence  their  hilarious  leave-taking,  puts  her  in  a 
cage,  opens  the  hive,  destroys,  or,  if  he  wishes  to  use  them, 
cuts  out  the  queen-cells  as  already  described,  gives  more  room 
— either  by  adding  a  super  of  sections  or  taking  out  some  of 
the  frames  of  brood,  as  they  may  well  be  spared— places  the 
cage  enclosing  the  queen  under  the  quilt,  and  leaves  the  bees 
to  return  at  their  pleasure.  At  nightfall  the  queen  is  liber- 
ated, the  hive  may  be  removed  to  another  place,  and  very 
likely  the  swarming-fever  is  subdued  for  the  season. 

If  it  is  desired  to  unite  the  swarm  with  a  nucleus,  exchange 
the  places  of  the  old  hive  with  the  caged  queen,  as  soon  as  the 
swarm  is  out,  and  the  nucleus  hive,  to  which,  of  course,  the 
swarm  will  now  come.  The  queen-cells  should  be  removed  at 
once  from  the  old  hive,  and  the  queen  liberated.  The  nucleus 
colony,  now  strongly  enforced,  should  have  empty  frames,  but 
always  with  starters,  added,  making  five  in  all ;  and  a  super  of 
sections  with  thin  foundation  added  at  once.  The  five  frames 
Langstroth  size,  more  if  smaller — are  put  on  one  side  and  the 
rest  of  the  space  filled  by  division-boards.  Here  the  nucleus  is 
at  once  transformed  into  a  large,  strong  colony. 

If  it  is  desired  to  hive  the  swarm  separately — and  usually 


OR,  MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  295 

this  gives  the  best  results,  even  if  we  do  not  care  for  increase 
— we  remove  the  old  hive  to  one  side,  and  turn  it  entirely 
around,  so  that  the  entrance  that  was  east  is  now  west.  We 
now  place  a  new  hive  with  five  or  six  empty  frames,  which 
have  narrow  starters,  right  where  the  old  hive  previously 
stood,  in  which  the  caged  queen  is  put.  We  fill  the  extra 
space  in  this  hive  with  division-boards,  and  set  on  it  the  super 
of  sections  previously  placed  on  the  old  hive  ;  or  in  case  this 
colony  that  just  swarmed  had  not  previously  received  a  super 
of  sections,  we  place  a  super  with  a  queen-excluding  honey- 
board  on  the  hive  where  the  new  swarm  is  now  to  enter. 

As  this  colony  has  no  comb  in  the  brood-chamber,  only 
foundation  starters,  and  has  sections  with  comb  or  thin  foun- 
dation, the  bees  will  commence  to  work  vigorously  in  the  sec- 
tions, especially  as  the  brood-chamber  is  so  restricted.  This 
idea  originated  with  Messrs.  Doolittle  and  Hutchinson,  and  is 
fully  explained  in  "Advanced  Bee-Culture,"  Mr.  Hutchinson's 
excellent  book,  which  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  comb- 
honey  producer. 

The  hive  from  which  the  swarm  issued — now  close  beside 
the  hive  with  the  new  colony — should  be  turned  a  little  each 
day  so  that  by  the  eighth  day  the  entrance  will  be  as  before  to 
the  east,  or  close  to  that  of  the  other  hive.  On  the  eighth  day 
this  hive  is  carried  to  some  distant  part  of  the  bee-yard.  Of 
course  all  the  bees  that  are  gathering— and  by  this  time  they 
are  numerous — will  go  to  the  other  hive,  which  will  so  weaken, 
the  still  queenless  colony  that  they  will  not  care  to  send  out 
another  or  second  swarm,  and  so  will  destroy  all  remaining 
queen-cells  and  queens  after  the  first  queen  comes  forth.  This, 
is  a  quick,  easy  way  to  prevent  after,  or  second,  swarms.  It 
originated  with  Mr.  James  Heddon,  and  I  find  that,  with  rare 
exception,  it  works  well.  I  believe  where  one  is  with  his  bees, 
this  last-described  plan  is  the  most  profitable  that  the  bee- 
keeper can  adopt.  Sometimes  the  mere  introducing  of  a  new 
queen  into  the  old  hive  will  prevent  any  further  swarming. 
The  queen  at  once  destroys  the  queen-cells. 

Some  extensive  apiarists,  who  desire  to  prevent  Increase 
of  colonies,  when  a  colony  swarms,  cage  the  old  queen,  destroy 
all  queen-cells,  and  exchange  this  hive — after  taking  out  three 


296  THK  BKK-KEEPKR'S  GUIDE; 

or  four  frames  of  brood  to  streng-then  nuclei,  replacing'  these 
with  frames  with  starters  of  foundation — with  one  that  recently 
swarmed,  which  was  previously  treated  the  same  way.  Thus 
a  colony  that  recently  sent  out  a  swarm,  but  retained  their 
queen,  has  probably,  from  the  decrease  of  bees,  loss  of  brood, 
and  removal  of  queen-cells,  lost  the  swarming-fever,  and  if  we 
give  them  plenty  of  room  and  ventilation,  they  will  accept  the 
bees  from  a  new  swarm,  and  spend  their  future  energies  in 
storing  honey.  If  the  swarming-fever  is  not  broken  up,  we 
shall  only  have  to  repeat  the  operation  again  in  a  few  days. 

Still  another  modification,  in  case  no  increase  of  bees  but 
rather  comb  honey  is  desired,  is  recommended  by  such  apia- 
rists as  Doolittle,  Davis,  and  others.  The  queen  is  caged  seven 
days,  the  queen-cells  in  the  hive  are  then  destroyed,  the  queen 
liberated,  and  everything  is  arranged  for  immense  yields  of 
comb  honey.  In  this  case  the  queen  is  idle,  but  the  bees  seem 
to  have  lost  not  one  jot  of  their  energy.  I  tried  this  plan  many 
years  ago  with  great  success,  and  recommended  it  to  Mrs.  L. 
B.  Baker,  who  prized  it  highly.  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller,  instead  of 
caging  the  queen,  places  her  with  a  nucleus  on  top  of  the  old 
hive,  thus  keeping  her  at  work,  by  exchange  of  frames.  After 
seven  days  he  destroys  the  queen-cells  in  the  old  hive  and 
unites  the  nucleus  with  it.  Here  the  queen  is  kept  at  work, 
the  swarming  impulse  subdued,  and  a  mighty  colony  made 
ready  for  business.  This  plan  slightly  modified  has  the  sanc- 
tion of  such  admirable  apiarists  as  Messrs.  Elwood  and 
Hetherington. 

Two  objections  are  sometimes  raised  right  here.  Suppose 
several  swarms  issue  at  once,  one  of  which  is  a  second  swarm, 
which  of  course  has  a  virgin  queen,  then  all  will  go  off 
together,  and  our  loss  is  grevous  indeed.  I  answer  that  sec- 
ond swarms  are  unprofitable,  and  should  never  be  permitted. 
We  should  be  so  vigilant  that  this  fate  would  never  befall  us. 
If  we  will  not  give  this  close  attention  without  such  stimulus, 
then  it  were  well  to  have  this  threatening  danger  hanging  over 
us.  Again,  suppose  we  are  not  right  at  hand  when  the  swarm 
issues,  the  queen  wanders  away  and  is  lost.  Yes,  but  if 
undipped  the  whole  colony  would  go,  now  it  is  only  the  queen. 
Usually  the  queen  gets  back.     If  not,  a  little  looking  will 


OR,    MANUAI,  OP   THE   APIARY.  297 

generally  find  her  not  far  away  within  a  ball  of  friendly 
workers.  At  nightfall  smoke  these  bees,  and  by  watching-  we 
learn  the  colony  which  swarmed,  as  the  bees  about  the  queen 
will  repair  at  once  to  it.  Mr.  Doolittle  suggests  that  we  may 
always  find  what  colony  swarmed  when  a  swarm  is  out.  If 
we  take  a  portion  of  the  bees  from  the  cluster  into  a  pail  and 
swing  them  around  lively,  then  throw  them  out,  they  will  at 
once,  he  says,  fly  to  the  old  home.  When  a  swarm  first  issues, 
young  bees,  too  young  to  fly,  crawling  about  the  hive,  will 
often  reveal  the  colony  that  swarmed. 

HIVING   SWARMS. 

But  in  clipping  wings,  some  queens  may  be  omitted,  or, 
from  taste,  or  other  motive,  some  bee-keepers  may  not  desire 
to  "deform  her  royal  highness."  Then  the  apiarist  must 
possess  the  means  to  save  the  would-be  rovers.  The  means 
are  :  good  hives  in  readiness  ;  some  kind  of  a  brush— a  turkey- 
wing  will  do  ;  a  basket  with  open  top,  which  should  be  at  least 
eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  so  made  that  it  may  be 
attached  to  the  end  of  the  pole  ;  and  two  poles,  one  very  long 
ind  the  other'  of  medium  length. 

Now,  let  us  attend  to  the  method  :  As  soon  as  the  cluster 
commences  to  form,  place  the  hive  in  position  where  we  wish 
the  colony  to  remain,  leaving  the  entrance  wide  open.  As 
soon  as  the  bees  are  fully  clustered,  we  must  manage  as  best 
we  can  to  empty  the  whole  cluster  in  front  of  the  hive.  As  the 
bees  are  full  of  honey  they  are  not  likely  to  sting,  but  will 
sometimes.  I  have  known  bees,  when  clustered  in  a  swarm,  to 
be  very  cross.  This,  however,  is  not  usual.  Should  the  bees 
be  on  a  twig  that  could  be  sacrificed,  this  might  be  easily  cut 
off  with  either  a  knife  or  saw  (Fig.  140),  and  so  carefully  as 
hardly  to  disturb  the  bees,  then  carry  (Fig.  76)  and  shake  the 
bees  in  front  of  the  hive,  when  with  joyful  hum  they  will  at 
once  proceed  to  enter.  If  the  twig  must  not  be  cut,  shake 
them  all  into  the  basket,  and  empty  before  the  hive.  Should 
they  be  on  a  tree  trunk,  or  a  fence,  then  brush  them  with  the 
wing^into  the  basket,  and  proceed  as  before.  If  they  are  high 
up  on  a  tree,  take  the  pole  and  basket,  and  perhaps  a  ladder 
will  also  be  nec.£«Sfi^f5rarIy  devices  like   a  bag  on  a  hoop,  a 


298 


THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 


Fig.  140. 


WhitinaH''s 

Fountain  Pump. 

— Fi-om 

A.  I.  Root  Co. 


OR,    MANtJAI,   Ot  THB   APIARY,  299 

suspended  wire-basket,  with  a  tripod  to  sustain  it,  etc.,  are 
often  recommended.  These  are  not  much  seen  in  the  apiaries 
of  our  best  bee-keepers.  Always  let  ingenuity  have  its  perfect 
work,  not  forgetting  that  the  object  to  be  gained  is  to  get  just 
as  many  of  the  bees  as  is  possible  on  the  alighting-board  in 
front  of  the  hive.  Carelessness  as  to  the  quantity  might 
involve  the  loss  of  the  queen,  which  would  be  serious.  The 
bees  will  not  remain  unless  the  queen  enters  the  hive.  Should 
a  cluster  form  where  it  is  impossible  to  brush  or  shake  them 
oflF,  they  can  be  driven  into  a  basket,  or  hive,  by  holding  it 
above  them  and  blowing  smoke  among  them.  All  washes  for 
the  hive  are  more  than  useless.  It  is  better  that  it  be  clean 
and  pure.  With  such,  if  they  are  shaded,  bees  will  generally 
be  satisfied.  But  assurance  will  be  made  doubly  sure  by 
giving  them  a  frame  of  brood,  in  all  stages  of  growth,  from 
an  old  hive.  This  may  be  inserted  before  the  work  of  hiving 
is  commenced.  Mr.  Doolittle  thinks  this  does  little  or  no  good, 
and  tends  to  induce  the  building  of  drone-comb.  Mr.  Bet- 
singer  says  they  are  even  more  apt  to  go  off  ;  but  I  think  he  will 
not  be  sustained  by  the  experience  of  other  apiarists.  He 
certainly  is  not  by  mine.  I  never  knew  but  one  colony  to 
leave  uncapped  brood  ;  I  have  often  known  them  to  swarm  out 
of  an  empty  hive  once  or  twice,  and  to  be  returned,  after  brood 
had  been  placed  in  the  hive,  when  they  accepted  the  changed 
conditions,  and  went  at  once  to  work.  We  should  expect  this, 
in  view  of  the  attachment  of  bees  for  their  nest  of  brood,  as 
also  from  analogy.  How  eager  the  ant  to  convey  her  larvae 
and  pupae— the  so-called  eggs— to  a  place  of  safety,  when  the 
nest  has  been  invaded  and  danger  threatens.  Bees  doubtless 
have  the  same  desire  to  protect  their  young,  and  as  they  can 
not  carry  tliem  away  to  a  new  home,  they  remain  to  care  for 
them  in  one  that  may  not  be  quite  to  their  taste.  Of  course  if 
swarming  is  permitted  either  with  or  without  clipped  queens, 
the  bees  must  be  closely  watched  at  the  swarming  season.  Dr. 
Miller  secures  a  bright,  active  girl  or  boy  to  watch.  He  says 
the  watcher  can  sit  in  the  shade  and  go  and  look  once  in  every 
four  or  five  minutes.  For  100  colonies  it  takes  the  whole  time 
of  one  person,  as  the  noise  made  by  so  many  flying  bees  makes 
actual  inspection  of  all  hives  necessary.    This  watching  is 


300  THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 

necessary  from  8  a.m.  till  2  p.m.;  or  in  very  best  weather  from 
6  a.m.  to  4  p.m.,  or  even  later.  Of  course  there  is  relief  on 
rainy  days. 

Farmers  can  keep  many  colonies  and  attend  to  their  farm 
work  as  usual.  They  have  only  to  have  a  boy  or  girl  to  catch 
and  cage  the  queens — the  "gudewife"  may  do  this — and 
inform  at  noon  or  night  what  colonies  have  swarmed.  When 
a  colony  swarms,  the  impulse  seems  to  be  general,  and  often  a 
half  dozen  colonies  will  be  on  the  wing  in  a  trice.  These  will 
very  often— generally,  in  truth — cluster  together.  In  this 
case,  to  find  the  queens  is  well  nigh  impossible,  and  we  can 
only  divide  up  the  bees  into  suitable  colonies,  and  as  soon  as 
we  find  any  starting  queen-cells,  give  them  a  queen.  Of  course 
we  may  lose  every  queen  but  one.  In  view  of  this  trouble, 
and  the  expense  and  doubtful  practicality  of  the  various 
swarm -catchers  in  vogue,  I  would  say.  Clip  the  queen's 
wing. 

If  no  more  colonies  are  desired,  the  swarm  may  be  given 
to  a  colony  which  has  previously  swarmed,  after  removing 
from  the  latter  all  queen-cells,  and  adding  to  the  room  by 
putting  on  the  sections,  and  removing  some  frames  of  brood 
to  strengthen  nuclei.  These  frames  may  be  replaced  with 
empty  combs,  foundation,  or  frames  with  starters.  We  may 
even  return  the  bees  to  their  old  home,  by  taking  the  same 
precautionary  measures,  with  a  good  hope  that  storing  and 
not  swarming  will  engage  their  attention  in  future  ;  and  if  we 
change  their  position,  or  better,  exchange  their  position  with 
that  of  a  nucleus,  we  shall  be  still  more  likely  to  succeed  in 
overcoming  the  desire  to  swarm.  A  swarm  may  be  given  to  a 
colony  that  was  hived  as  a  swarm  a  day  or  two  before  with 
great  safety,  by  shaking  all  the  bees  of  both  In  front  of  the 
hive.  Some  seasons,  usually  when  honey  is  being  gathered 
each  day  for  long  intervals,  but  not  in  large  quantities,  the 
desire  and  determination  of  some  colonies  to  swarm  is  im- 
placable. Room,  ventilation,  changed  position  of  hive,  each 
and  all  will  fail.  Then  we  can  do  no  better  than  to  gratify 
the  propensity  by  giving  the  swarm  a  new  home,  and  make 
an  effort. 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF  THE   APIARY.  301 


TO  PREVENT  SECOND   SWARMS. 


The  Heddon  method  of  preventing'  second  swarms  has 
already  been  explained.  This  method  is  valuable  because  it 
requires  no  looking  up  of  queen-cells,  and  thus  saves  time. 

As  already  stated,  the  wise  apiarist  will  always  have  on 
band  extra  queens.  Now,  if  he  does  not  desire  to  form  nuclei 
(as  already  explained),  and  thus  use  these  queen-cells,  he  will 
at  once  give  the  old  colony  a  fertile  queen.  At  the  same  time 
this  practice  secures  only  carefully  reared  queens  from  his  best 
colonies.  As  the  queen  usually  destroys  all  queen-cells, 
farther  swarming  is  prevented.  The  method  of  Introduction 
will  be  fiven  hereafter,  though  in  such  cases  there  is  very 
little  danger  incurred  by  giving  them  a  queen  at  once.  If 
desired,  the  queen-cells  can  be  used  in  forming  nuclei,  in  man- 
ner before  described.  If  extra  queens  are  wanting,  we  have 
only  to  look  carefully — very  carefully,  as  it  is  easy  to  miss  a 
small,  worthless  cell  in  some  cranny  or  corner  of  the  comb — 
through  the  old  hive  and  remove  all  but  one  of  the  queen-cells. 
A  little  care  will  certainly  make  sure  work,  as  after  swarming 
the  old  hive  is  so  thinned  of  bees  that  only  carelessness  will 
overlook  queen-cells  in  such  a  quest.  Mr.  Doolittle  waits  till 
the  eighth  day,  or  till  he  hears  the  piping  of  the  young 
queen  ;  then  cuts  out  all  queen-cells,  when,  of  course,  he  cer- 
tainly inhibits  second  swarms.  When  this  practice  fails,  as 
it  very  rarely  does,  it  is  because  two  cells  were  left. 

TO  PREVENT  SWARMING. 

As  yet  we  can  only  partly  avert  it.  Mr.  Quinby  offered 
a  large  reward  for  a  perfect  non-swarming  hive,  and  never  had 
to  make  the  payment.  Mr.  Hazen  attempted  it,  and  partially 
succeeded,  by  granting  much  space  to  the  bees,  so  that  they 
should  not  be  impelled  to  vacate  for  lack  of  room.  The  Quinby 
hive,  already  described,  by  the  large  capacity  of  the  brood- 
chamber,  and  ample  opportunity  for  top  and  side  storing, 
looks  to  the  same  end.  Mr.  Simmins,  of  England,  thinks  he 
can  prevent  swarming  by  keeping  unoccupied  cells  between 
the  brood-nest  and  entrance  to  the  hive.  Mr.  Muth  says  if  we 
always  have  empty  cells  in  the  brood-nest  swarming  will  sel- 


302  THE  bee-kekper's  guide; 

dom  occur.  Yet  he  says  "  seldom."  "We  may  safely  say  that 
a  perfect  non-swarming  hive  or  system  is  not  yet  before  the 
bee-keeping-  public.  The  best  aids  toward  non-swarming  are 
shade,  ventilation,  and  roomy  hives.  But  as  we  shall  see  in 
the  sequel,  much  room  in  the  brood-chamber,  unless  we  work 
for  extracted  honey — by  which  means  we  may  greatly  repress 
the  swarming  fever — prevents  our  obtaining  honey  in  a  desir- 
able style.  If  we  add  sections,  unless  the  connection  is  quite 
free— in  which  case  the  queen  is  apt  to  enter  them  and  greatly 
vex  us — we  must  cowd  some  to  send  the  bees  into  the  sections. 
Such  crowding  is  almost  sure  to  lead  to  swarming.  I  have,  by 
uncapping  the  combs  of  honey  in  the  brood-chamber,  as  sug- 
gested to  me  years  ago  by  Mr.  M.  M.  Baldridge — causing  the 
honey  to  run  down  from  the  combs — sent  the  bees  crowding  to 
the  sections,  and  thus  deferred  or  prevented  swarming.  Those 
who  have  frames  that  can  be  turned  upside  down,  or  invertible 
hives,  may  often  secure  the  same  results  by  simple  inversion. 
By  placing  the  sections  in  the  brood -chamber  till  the  bees 
commence  to  work  on  them,  and  then  removing  them  above, 
or  by  carrying  brood  up  beside  the  sections,  the  bees  are  gen- 
erally induced  to  commence  working  in  sections.  Some  sec- 
tions with  combs  in  them  often  aids  much;  This  requires  too 
much  manipulation,  and  so  is  not  practical  with  the  general 
bee-keeper. 

It  is  possible  that  by  extracting  freely  when  storing  is 
very  rapid,  and  then  by  freely  feeding  the  extracted  honey  in 
the  interims  of  honey-secretion,  we  might  prevent  swarming, 
secure  very  rapid  breeding,  and  still  get  our  honey  in  sections. 
My  experiments  in  this  direction  have  not  been  as  successful 
as  I  had  hoped,  and  I  can  not  recommend  the  practice,  though 
some  apiarists  claim  to  have  succeeded.  Even  if  this  could  be 
made  to  work  it  involves  too  much  labor  to  make  it  advisable. 

The  keeping  of  colonies  queenless,  in  order  to  secure 
honey  without  increase,  is  practiced  and  advised  by  some  even 
of  our  distinguished  apiarists.  As  already  stated,  I  have  done 
this  with  excellent  results.  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller's  method,  already 
described,  accomplishes  the  same  object,  and  keeps  all  the 
queens  at  work  all  the  time. 


OR,    MANUAL   OF   THK    APIARY.  303 


ARTIFICIAL  INCREASE. 


While,  as  already  remarked,  there  is  no  better  way  than  to 
allow  swarming-  as  just  described,  when  one's  circumstances 
make  it  possible  to  do  so,  yet  it  is  true  that  some  of  our  best 
bee-keepers  prefer  to  divide.  In  some  cases  the  bee-keeper  can 
be  with  his  bees  only  at  certain  times— often  early  in  the 
morning,  late  in  the  afternoon,  or  perchance  at  the  noontide 
hour ;  then,  of  course,  artificial  dividing  becomes  necessary. 
It  is  practiced  to  secure  any  desired  increase  of  colonies,  also  to 
prevent  loss  from  swarming  when  no  one  i&by.  This  requires 
more  time  than  swarming,  as  detailed  above,  and  may  not — 
probably  often  doos  not— secure  quite  as  good  results.  Yet  I 
am  very  sure,  from  a  long  experience,  that,  with  sufficient  care, 
artificial  colonies  may  be  formed  that  will  fully  equal  natural 
swarms  in  the  profits  they  bring-  to  their  owners.  I  am  sure  I 
could  get  ten  colenies  from  one  in  a  season,  and  if  I  had  combs 
and  should  feed  I  think  I  could  nearly  double  these  fig:ures. 

HOW  TO   DIVIDE. 

Mr.  Cheshire  argues  against  natural  swarming^  and  in 
favor  of  dividing-,  as  the  former  tends,  through  selection,  to 
develop  the  swarming  habit.  I  do  not  accept  his  reasoning,  as, 
unless  we  permit  swarming,  we  can  not  tell  what  colonies  to 
breed  from,  as  we  have  no  way  to  know  their  tendencies. 
Often,  too,  swarming  only  indicates  great  prolificness.  By 
the  process  already  described,  we  have  secured  a  goodly  num- 
ber of  fine  queens,  which  will  be  in  readiness  at  the  needed 
time.  Now,  as  soon  as  the  white  clover  harvest  is  well  com- 
menced, early  in  June,  we  may  commence  operations.  If  we 
have  but  one  colony  to  divide,  it  is  well  to  wait  till  they  become 
pretty  populous,  but  not  until  they  swarm.  Take  one  of  our 
waiting  hives,  which  now  holds  a  nucleus  with  laying- queen, 
and  place  the  same  close  alongside  the  colony  we  wish  to 
divide.  This  must  be  done  on  a  warm  day,  when  the  bees  are 
active,  and  better  be  done  while  the  bees  are  busy,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  day.  Remove  the  division-board  of  the  new  hive, 
and  then  remove  five  combs  well  loaded  with  brood,  and,  of 
course,  containing  some  honey,  from  the  old  colony,  bees  and 
all,  to  the  new  hive.     Also  take   the  remaining  frames  and 


304  THE  beb-kbepkr's  guide; 

shake  the  bees  into  the  new  hive  ;  only  be  sure  that  the  queen 
still  remains  in  the  old  hive.  Fill  both  the  hives  with  empty 
frames — if  the  frames  are  filled  with  empty  comb  it  will  be 
still  better  ;  if  not,  it  will  always  pay  to  give  at  least  starters 
of  comb  or  foundation — and  return  the  new  hive  to  its  former 
position.  The  old  bees  will  return  to  the  old  colony,  while  the 
young  ones  will  remain  peaceably  with  the  new  queen.  The 
old  colony  will  now  possess  at  least  seven  frames  of  brood, 
honey,  etc.,  the  old  queen,  and  plenty  of  bees,  so  that  they 
will  work  on  as  though  naught  had  transpired,  though  perhaps 
moved  to  a  little  harder  effort,  by  the  added  space  and  five 
empty  combs  or  frames  with  starters  or  full  sheets  of  founda- 
tion. These  last  may  all  be  placed  at  one  end,  or  placed 
between  the  others,  though  not  so  as  greatly  to  divide  brood. 
The  new  colony  will  have  eight  frames  of  brood,  comb,  etc., 
three  from  the  nucleus  and  five  from  the  old  colony,  a  young 
laying  queen,  plenty  of  bees  (those  of  the  previous  nucleus  and 
the  young  bees  from  the  old  colony),  and  will  work  with  a  sur- 
prising vigor,  often  even  eclipsing  the  old  colony. 

If  the  apiarist  has  several  colonies,  it  is  better  to  make  the 
new  colony  from  several  old  colonies,  as  follows  :  Take  one 
frame  of  brood-comb  from  each  of  six  old  colonies,  or  two 
from  each  of  three,  and  carry  them,  bees  and  all,  and  place 
with  the  nucleus.  Be  sure  that  no  queen  is  removed.  Fill  all 
the  hives  with  empty  combs,  or  frames  with  starters  of  foun- 
dation, as  before.  In  this  way  we  increase  wijhout  in  the 
least  disturbing  any  of  the  colonies,  and  may  add  a  colony 
every  day  or  two,  or  perhaps  several,  depending  on  the  size  of 
our  apiary,  and  can  thus  almost  always,  so  experience  says, 
prevent  swarming. 

By  taking  only  brood  that  is  all  capped,  we  can  safely  add 
one  or  two  frames  to  each  nucleus  every  week,  without  adding 
any  bees,  as  there  would  be  no  danger  of  loss  by  chilling  the 
brood.  In  this  way,  as  we  remove  no  bees,  we  have  to  spend 
no  time  in  looking  for  the  queen,  and  may  build  up  our  nuclei 
into  full  colonies,  and  keep  back  the  swarming  impulse  with 
great  facility. 

These  are  unquestionably  the  best  methods  to  divide,  and 
so  I  will  not  complicate  the  subject  by  detailing  others.    The 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF   THE   APIARY.  305 

only  objection  that  can  be  urged  against  them— and  even  this 
does  not  apply  to  the  last — is  that  we  must  seek  out  the  queen 
in  each  hive,  or  at  least  be  sure  that  we  do  not  remove  her, 
though  this  is  by  no  means  so  tedious  if  we  have  Italians  or 
other  races  of  yellow  bees,  as,  of  course,  we  all  will.  I  might 
give  other  methods  which  would  render  unnecessary  this  cau- 
tion, but,  to  my  mind,  they  are  inferior,  and  not  to  be  recom- 
mended. If  we  proceed  as  above  described,  the  bees  will  sel- 
dom prepare  to  swarm  at  all,  and,  if  they  do,  they  will  be  dis- 
covered in  the  act,  by  such  frequent  examinations,  and  the 
work  may  be  cut  short  by  at  once  dividing  such  colonies,  as 
first  explained,  and  destroying  their  queen-cells,  or,  if  desired, 
using  them  for  forming  new  nuclei. 

CAPTURING   ABSCONDING   SWARMS. 

Sometimes  swarms  break  cluster  and  take  wing  for  their 
prospective  home  before  the  bee-keeper  has  hived  them. 
Throwing  dirt  among  them  will  sometimes  cause  them  to 
alight  again.  Throwing  water  among  them  in  the  form  of  a 
fine  spray  (Fig.  140)  will  almost  always  do  this.  For  such  pur- 
pose some  hand  pump  is  very  desirable.  Whitman's  fountain 
pump  is  one  of  the  most  convenient.  It  costs  about  $7.00. 
Another  important  use  for  such  a  pump  in  the  apiary  is  this : 
If  a  swarm,  when  clustered,  is  sprinkled  occasionally,  it  will 
remain  clustered  indefinitely.  This  permits  us  to  retain  a 
swarm  in  case  it  is  more  convenient  to  hive  it  later.  While 
most  customs  have  a  reasonable  basis,  the  common  one  of 
horns  and  bells  and  beating  of  pans  to  stop  a  swarm  is  a  nota- 
ble exception.    It  does  not  do  the  least  good. 


306  THE  bee-keeper's  guide. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

ITALIANS  AND  ITAI^IANIZING. 

The  history  and  description  of  Italian  bees  have  already 
been  considered,  so  it  only  remains  to  discuss  the  subject  in  a 
practical  light. 

The  superiority  of  the  Italians  seems  no  longer  a  mooted 
question.  I  now  know  of  no  one  among  the  able  apiarists  in 
our  country  who  takes  the  ground  that  a  thorough  balancing 
of  qualities  will  make  as  favorable  a  showing  for  the  German 
as  for  the  Italian  bees,  though  I  think  that  the  late  Baron  of 
Berlepsch  held  to  this  view. 

I  think  I  am  capable  of  acting  as  judge  on  this  subject.  I 
have  never  sold  a  dozen  queens  in  my  life,  and  so  have  not 
been  unconsciously  influenced  by  self-interest.  In  fact,  I  have 
never  had,  if  I  except  six  years,  any  direct  interest  in  bees  at 
all,  and  all  my  work  and  experiments  had  only  the  promotion 
and  spread  of  truth  as  the  ultimatum.  Again,  I  have  kept 
both  blacks  and  Italians  side  by  side,  and  carefully  observed 
and  noted  results  during  eight  years  of  my  experience.  I  have 
carefully  collected  data  as  to  increase  of  brood,  rapidity  of 
storing,  early  and  late  habits  in  the  day  and  season,  kinds  of 
flowers  visited,  amiability,  etc.,  and  I  am  more  than  persuaded 
that  the  general  verdict,  that  they  are  superior  tp  the  German 
race,  is  entirely  correct.  The  Italians  are  far  superior  to  the 
German  bees  in  many  respects,  and,  though  I  am  acquainted 
with  all  the  works  on  apiculture  printed  in  our  language,  and 
have  an  exj;ensive  acquaintance  with  the  leading  apiarists  of 
our  country  from  Maine  to  California,  yet  I  know  hardly  a  man 
that  has  opportunity  to  form  a  correct  judgment,  does  not 
give  stron'g  preference  to  the  Italians.  The  black  bees  are  in 
some  respects  superior  to  the  Italians,  and  if  a  bee-keeper's 
methods  cause  him  to  give  these  points  undue  importance,  in 
forming  his  judgments,  then  his  conclusions  may  be  wrong. 
Faulty  management,  too,  may  lead  to  wrong  conclusions. 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF   THE   APIARY.  307 

The  Italians  certainly  possess  the  following  points  of 
superiority : 

First.  They  possess  longer  tongues,  and  so  can  gather 
from  flowers  which  are  useless  to  the  black  bee.  This  point 
has  already  been  sufiBciently  considered.  How  much  value 
hangs  upon  this  structural  peculiarity  I  am  unable  to  state.  I 
have  frequently  seen  Italians  working  on  red  clover.  I  never 
saw  a  black  bee  thus  employed.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  this 
might  be,  at  certain  times  and  certain  seasons,  a  very  material 
aid.  How  much  of  the  superior  storing  qualities  of  the  Italians 
is  due  to  this  lengthened  ligula,  I  am  unable  to  say.  Mr.  J. 
H.  Martin  has  a  very  ingenious  tongue  measurer  by  which  the 
length  of  the  tongues  of  bees  in  the  several  hives  can  be 
quickly  and  accurately  compared.  I  have  made  a  very  simple 
and  convenient  instrument  to  accomplish  the  same  end  ;  two 
rectangular  pieces,  one  of  glass  and  the  other  of  wire  gauze, 
are  so  set  in  a  frame  that  the  glass  inclines  to  the  gauze.  At 
one  end  they  touch  ;  at  the  other  they  are  separated  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch.  Honey  is  spread  on  the  glass  and  all  set 
in  the  hive.  The  bees  can  only  sip  the  honey  through  the 
gauze.  The  bees  that  clean  the  farthest  from  the  end  where 
it  touches  the  gauze  have  the  longest  tongues.  This  gives 
only  relative  lengths,  while  Mr.  Martin's  register  tells  the 
absolute  length. 

Second.  They  are  more  active,  and,  with  the  same  oppor- 
tunities, will  collect  a  good  deal  more  honey.  This  is  a  matter 
of  observation,  which  I  have  tested  over  and  over  again.  Yet 
I  will  give  the  figures  of  another  :  Mr.  Doolittle  secured  from 
two  colonies  309  pounds  and  301  pounds,  respectively,  of  cowd 
honey,  during  the  one  season.  These  surprising  figures,  the 
best  he  could  give,  were  from  his  best  Italian  colonies. 
Similar  testimony  comes  from  Klein  and  Dzierzon  over  the 
sea,  and  from  hosts  of  our  own  apiarists. 

Third.  They  work  earlier  and  later.  This  is  not  only  true 
of  the  day,  but  of  the  season.  On  cool  days  in  spring  I  have 
seen  the  dandelions  swarming  with  Italians,  while  not  a  black 
bee  was  to  be  seen.  On  May  7,  1877,  I  walked  less  than  half  a 
mile,  and  counted  sixty-eight  bees  gathering  from  dandelions, 
yet  only  two  were  black  bees.    This  might  be  considered  an 


308  THB  BBK-KEEPKR'S  GUIDE  ; 

undesirable  feature.  Yet,  from  careful  observation  covering 
thirty  years,  I  think  that  Italian  bees  are  quite  as  apt  to  win- 
ter well  and  pass  the  spring-  months  without  harm  as  are  black 
bees. 

Fourth.  They  are  far  better  to  protect  their  hives  against 
robber-bees.  Robbers  that  attempt  to  plunder  Italians  of  their 
hard-earned  stores  soon  find  that  they  have  "  dared  to  beard 
the  lion  in  his  den."  This  is  so  patent  that  even  the  advo- 
cates of  black  bees  are  ready  to  concede  it. 

Fifth.  They  are  proof  ag^ainst  the  ravages  of  the  bee- 
moth's  larvae.  This  is  also  universally  conceded.  This  is  no 
very  great  advantage,  as  no  respectable  bee-keeper  would 
dread  moths,  even  with  the  black  bees. 

Sixth.  The  queens  are  decidedly  more  prolific.  This  is 
probably  in  part  due  to  the  greater  and  more  constant  activity 
of  the  workers.  This  is  observable  at  all  seasons,  but  more 
especially  when  building  up  in  the  spring.  No  one  who  will 
take  the  pains  to  note  the  increase  of  brood  will  long  remain 
in  doubt  on  this  point. 

Seventh.  They  are  less  apt  to  breed  in  winter,  when  it  is 
desirable  to  have  the  bees  very  quiet. 

Eighth.  The  queen  is  more  readily  found,  which  is  a  great 
advantage.  In  the  various  manipulations  of  the  apiary,  it  is 
frequently  desirable  to  find  the  queen.  In  full  colonies  I  would 
rather  find  three  Italian  queens  than  one  black  one.  Where 
time  is  money  this  becomes  a  matter  of  much  importance. 

Ninth.  The  bees  are  more  disposed  to  adhere  to  the  comb 
while  being  handled,  which  some  might  regard  a  doubtful 
compliment,  though  I  consider  it  a  desirable  quality. 

Tenth.  They  are,  in  my  judgment,  less  liable  to  rob  other 
bees.  They  will  find  honey  when  the  blacks  gather  none,  and 
the  time  for  robbing  is  when  there  is  no  gathering.  This  may 
explain  the  above  peculiarity. 

Eleventh.  In  my  estimation,  a  sufficient  ground  for  pref- 
erence, did  it  stand  alone,  is  that  the  Italian  bees  2lXQ  far  more 
amiable.  Years  ago  I  got  rid  of  my  black  bees  because  they 
were  so  cross.  A  few  years  later  I  got  two  or  three  colonies, 
that  my  students  might  see  the  difference,  but  to  my  regret ; 
for,  as  we  removed  the  honey  in  the  autumn,  they  seemed 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THB   APIARY.  309 

perfectly  furious,  like  demons,  seeking  whom  they  might 
devour,  and  this,  too,  despite  the  smoker,  while  the  far  more 
numerous  Italians  were  safely  handled,  even  without  smoke. 
The  experiment  at  least  satisfied  a  large  class  of  students  as 
to  superiority.  Mr.  Quinby  speaks  in  his  book  of  their  being 
cross,  and  Capt.  Hetherington  tells  me  that  if  not  much 
handled  they  are  more  cross  than  the  blacks.  From  my  own 
•experience,  I  can  not  understand  this.  Hybrids,  between 
blacks  and  Italians,  are  ofttimes  even  more  cross  than  are  the 
pure  black  bees,  but  otherwise  are  nearly  as  desirable  as  the 
pure  Italians. 

I  have  kept  these  two  races  side  by  side  for  years  ;  I  have 
studied  them  most  carefully,  and  I  feel  sure  that  none  of  the 
foregoing  eleven  points  of  excellence  are  too  strongly  stated. 

The  black  bees  will  go  into  sections  more  readily  than 
Italians,  yet  the  skillful  apiarist  will  find  it  easy  to  overcome 
this  objection  in  the  manner  already  described. 

There  is  no  question  but  that  the  German  bees  produce 
nicer,  whiter  comb  honey  than  do  the  Italians.  This  supe- 
riority is  due  in  part  to  thicker  cappings,  and  to  a  wider  air- 
space between  honey  and  capping.  This,  however,  is  too  nice 
a  point  to  count  very  greatly  in  their  favor. '  The  comb  honey 
produced  by  Italians  does  not  have  to  go  begging  in  the 
markets. 

The  advantages  of  the  Italians,  which  have  been  consid- 
ered thus  fully,  are  more  than  sufficient  to  warrant  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  German  bees  from  the  apiary.  I  say  truly,  no  one 
needs  to  be  urged  to  a  course  that  adds  to  the  ease,  profit  and 
agreeableness  of  his  vocation.  Darwin  showed,  years  ago, 
that  introduced  or  newly  imported  plants  or  animals  usually 
possessed  more  vigor  than  those  "  to  the  manor  born."  Hence 
the  wisdom  of  frequent  and  repeated  importations  from  Italy. 
This  is  the  more  desirable  unless  the  queen-breeder  works 
carefully  and  scientifically  to  improve  his  stock.  No  doubt  we 
have  American  queen-breeders  whose  bees  are  superior  to  any 
they  might  secure  from  Italy.  Yet  even  these  may  find  it 
desirable  to  bring  occasional  fresh  stock  from  the  I^igurian 
hills. 


310  THE  bee-keeper's  guide  ; 

THE  NEW   RACES  OF  BEES. 

All  of  the  valuable  characteristics  of  the  Italian  bees  are 
exaggerated  in  the  Syrian  bees,  except  that  of  amiability. 
This  feature — irritability— would  not  be  an  objection  to  an 
experienced  bee-keeper.  I  believe,  after  several  years'  experi- 
ence with  the  Syrians,  that  they  would  soon  become  as  pleas- 
ant to  manage  and  handle  as  are  the  Italians.  They  are  not 
so  readily  subdued  with  smoke  as  are  the  Italians,  and  require 
careful  handling.  They  are  astonishingly  prolific,  and  keep 
up  the  brood-rearing  whether  there  are  nectar-secreting  flowers 
or  not.  As  the  queen  fills  a  comb  before  leaving  it,  the  brood 
is  kept  very  compact.  They  start  a  large  number  of  queen- 
cells,  and  so  for  queen-rearing  they  are  super-excellent.  The 
comb  honey  of  these  bees  is  said  to  be  quite  inferior,  because 
of  thin  caps — a  point  I  have  failed  to  observe.  I  think  the 
honey  about  equal  to  that  of  the  Italians  in  appearance.  The 
Cyprian  bees  are  in  no  way  superior  to  the  Syrians,  so  far  as 
I  can  learn,  though  I  have  had  no  experience  with  them,  and 
they  are  considerably  more  irritable.  The  Carniolana  (Figs. 
11,  12,  13)  are  much  praised  by  European  bee-keepers.  They 
are  certainly  very  amiable,  and  so  excellent  for  the  beginner. 
From  seeing  Mr.  Frank  Benton  handle  his  Carniolans  the 
summer  of  1899,  in  Washington  City,  I  am  persuaded  that  their 
amiability  has  not  been  exaggerated.  The  bees  were  not 
gathering,  it  was  about  sunset,  and  yet  Mr.  Benton  handled 
them  with  no  smoke  or  protection,  and  that  very  roughly,  yet 
we  received  no  stings.  Mr.  Benton,  whose  experience  surely 
makes  him  a  competent  judge,  values  the  Carniolan  bees  as  of 
superior  excellence. 

WHAT  BEES  SHAI^L  WE  KEEP  ? 

The  beginner  certainly  better  keep  Italians  or  Carniolans. 
The  Italians  are  so  excellent  that  the  Syrians,  good  as  they 
are,  did  not  take  root  among  us. 

HOW   TO   ITALIANIZE. 

From  what  has  been  already  explained  regarding  the  natural 
history  of  bees,  it  will  be  seen  that  all  we  have  to  do  to  change 
our  bees  is  to  change  our  queens.     Hence,  to  ItaliSoize  a  col- 


OR,    MANUAI,   OF   THE   APIARY.  311 

ony,  we  have  only  to  procure  and  introduce  an  Italian  queen. 
The  same,  of  course,  is  true  of  Cyprianizing-  or  Syrianizing.  If 
we  change  the  queen  we  soon  change  the  bees. 

HOW   TO   INTRODUCK   A    QUBEN. 

In  dividing  colonies,  where  we  give  our  queen  to  a  colony 
composed  wholly  of  young  bees,  it  is  safe  and  easy  to  intro- 
duce a  queen  in  the  manner  explained  in  the  section  on  arti- 
ficial increase  of  colonies.  To  introduce  a  queen  to  a  colony 
composed  of  old  bees  requires  more  care.  First,  we  should 
seek  out  the  old  queen  and  destroy  her,  then  cage  our  Italian 
queen  in  a  wire  cage  (Fig.  141),  which  may  be  made  by  wind- 

FiG.  141. 


Queen-Gage. — From  A.  I,  Root  Co. 

ing  a  strip  of  wire-cloth,  three  and  one-half  inches  wide,  and 
containing  fifteen  to  twenty  meshes  to  the  inch,  about  the 
finger.  I^et  it  lap  each  way  one-half  inch,  then  cut  it  off. 
Ravel  out  the  half-inch  on  each  side,  and  weave  in  the  ends  of 
the  wires,  forming  a  tube  the  size  of  the  finger.  We  now  have 
only  to  put  the  queen  in  the  tube  and  pinch  the  ends  together, 
and  the  queen  is  caged.  The  cage  containing  the  queen  should 
be  inserted  between  two  adjacent  combs  containing  honey, 
each  of  which  will  touch  it.  The  queen  can  thus  sip  honey  as 
she  needs  it.  If  we  fear  the  queen  may  not  be  able  to  sip  the 
honey  through  the  meshes  of  the  wire,  we  may  dip  a  piece  of 
clean  sponge  in  honey  and  insert  it  in  the  upper  end  of  the 
cage  before  we  compress  this  end.  This  will  furnish  the 
queen  with  the  needed  food.  In  forty-eight  hours  we  again 
open  the  hive,  after  a  thorough  smoking,  and  also  the  cage, 
which  is  easily  done  by  pressing  the  upper  end  at  right  angles 
to  the  direction  of  the  pressure  when  we  closed  it.     In  doing 


312  THE  bee-keeper's  guide  ; 

this  do  not  remove  the  cage.  Now  keep  watch,  and  if,  as  the 
bees  enter  the  cage,  or  as  the  queen  emerges,  the  bees  attack 
her,  secure  her  immediately  and  re-cage  her  for  another  forty- 
eight  hours.  I  have  introduced  many  queens  in  this  manner, 
and  have  very  rarely  been  unsuccessful.  At  such  times  if  the 
queen  is  not  well  received  by  the  bees,  then  she  is  "  balled," 
as  it  is  termed.  By  the  expression,  "  balling  the  queen,"  we 
mean  that  the  worker-bees  press  about  her  in  a  compact  cluster, 
so  as  to  form  a  real  live  ball  as  large  as  a  good-sized  peach. 
Here  the  queen    is  held  till  she  dies ;    or  at    least    I  have 

Fig.  142. 


Queen-Cage. — From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 

repeatedly  had  queens  balled  and  the  next  day  would  find  them 
in  front  of  the  hive  dead.  By  smoking  the  ball  or  throwing  it 
into  water  the  queen  may  be  speedily  liberated.  Mr.  Dadant 
stops  the  cage  with  a  plug  of  wood  (Fig.  141),  and  when  he 
goes  to  liberate  the  queen  replaces  the  wooden  stopple  with 
one  of  comb,  and  leaves  the  bees  to  liberate  the  queen  by  eat- 
ing out  the  comb.  Mr.  Betsinger  uses  a  larger  cage,  open  at 
one  end,  which  is  pressed  against  the  comb  till  the  mouth  of 
the  cage  reaches  the  middle  of  it.  If  I  understand  him,  the 
queen  is  thus  held  by  comb  and  cage  till  the  bees  liberate  her. 
It  is  a  better  way  to  form  a  nucleus,  all  of  young  bees,  and  let 
the  bees  liberate  the  queen  from  a  cage  with  the  opening 
stopped  with  candy. 

If,  upon  liberating  the  queen,  we  find  that  the  bees  "ball" 
her,  that  is,  gather  so  closely  about  her  as  to  form  a  compact 


OR,   MANTTAI,  OF  THE  APIARY.  313 

clnster,  we  must  at  once  smoke  the  bees  oflf  and  recage  the 
queen,  else  they  will  hold  her  a  prisoner  till  she  is  dead. 

The  Peet  cage  (Figs.  136  and  142),  which  is  not  only  an 
introducing  but  a  shipping  cage,  is  a  most  valuable  invention. 
The  back  of  the  cage  is  tin  (Fig.  142),  and  may  be  drawn  out, 
which  leaves  the  back  of  the  cage  entirely  open.  The  pieces  in 
front  (Fig.  136)  are  to  be  tacked  on  in  shipping.  They  prevent 
the  accompanying  bees  from  stinging  any  one  who  may  handle 
the  cage,  and  also  secure  ventilation.  The  tin  points,  which 
turn  easily,  are  turned  at  right  angles  to  the  cage,  as  shown 
in  the  figure.  The  cage  is  pressed  close  up  to  a  smooth  piece 
of  comb  containing  both  brood  and  honey,  where  it  is  held  by 
the  tin  points,  and  then  the  tin  back  is  withdrawn.  The  bees 
will  soon  eat  under  the  comb  and  thus  liberate  the  queen  and 
almost  always  accept  her.  I  have  had  such  admirable  success 
with  this  cage  that  I  heartily  recommend  it.  The  food  in  the 
cage  will  keep  the  queen,  even  though  the  bees  do  not  feed  her 
through  the  wire,  and  there  is  no  honey  in  the  comb.  The 
Benton  cage  (Fig.  144)  is  a  modification  of  the  Peet  cage,  and 
as  it  is  now  almost  universally  used  for  shipping  and  intro- 
ducing, it  must  be  an  improvement.  Here  candy  holds  the 
queen  a  prisoner,  and  she  is  safe  from  starvation  until  the  bees 
liberate  her  by  eating  the  candy,  which  ought,  and  usually 
does,  make  them  sweet  and  amiable. 

Judge  Andrews,  of  Texas,  states  a  valuable  point  in  this 
connection,  which,  though  I  have  not  tried,  I  am  glad  to  give. 
The  reputation  of  Judge  Andrews  and  the  value  of  the  sug- 
gestion alike  warrant  it.  He  says  the  queens  will  be  accepted 
just  as  quickly  when  caged  in  a  hive  with  a  colony  of  bees, 
even  though  the  old  queen  is  still  at  large  in  the  hive.  Such 
caged  queens,  says  the  Judge,  after  two  or  three  days,  are  just 
as  satisfactory  to  the  worker-bees  as  though  "  to  the  manor 
born,"  and  even  more  safe  when  liberated — of  course  the  old 
queen  is  first  removed — as  the  bees  start  no  queen-cells,  if  the 
old  queen  has  remained  in  the  hive  until  this  time,  and  the 
presence  of  queen-cells  agitates  the  newly  liberated  queen, 
which  is  pretty  sure  to  cause  her  destruction.  Here,  then,  we 
may  cage  and  keep  our  queens  after  they  have  been  fecundated 
in  the  nuclei,  and  at  any  time  can  take  one  of  these,  or  the  old 


314  THH  bkk-keeper's  guide; 

queen,  at  pleasure,  to  use  elsewhere,  though,  if  the  latter,  we 
must  liberate  one  of  the  caged  queens,  which,  says  the  Judge, 
"will  always  be  welcomed  by  the  bees."  Mr.  Doolittle,  as 
already  stated,  causes  the  bees  to  fill  themselves  with  honey, 
then  shakes  them  into  a  box,  which  is  set  for  a  day  in  a  cool, 
dark  room,  when  the  new  queen  can  be  given  them  at  once, 
even  though  she  be  a  virgin.  It  is  also  stated  that  if  we 
remove  a  queen  at  noonday,  and  after  dark  smoke  the  colony, 
after  keeping  the  queen  fasting  for  half  an  hour,  we  may 
safely  introduce  her  at  once.  I  have  tried  neither  of  these 
methods.  I  think  this  is  the  method  of  Mr.  Simmins,  of 
England. 

When  bees  are  not  strong,  especially  if  robber-bees  are 
abundant,  it  is  more  difficult  to  succeed,  and  at  such  times  the 
utmost  caution  will  occasionally  fail  of  success  if  the  bees  are 
not  all  young.  Sometimes  a  queen  may  be  safely  introduced 
into  a  queenless  colony  by  simply  shaking  the  bees  all  down 
in  front  of  the  hive,  and  as  they  pass  in,  letting  the  queen  run 
in  with  them.  If  the  queen  to  be  introduced  is  in  a  nucleus, 
■we  can  almost  always  introduce  her  safely  by  taking  the  frame 
containing  the  queen,  bees  and  all,  and  setting  it  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  hive  containing  the  queenless  colony ;  though  it  is 
well  to  smoke  the  colony  well. 

A  young  queen,  just  emerging  from  a  cell,  can  always  be 
safely  given  at  once  to  a  colony,  after  destroying  the  old 
queen. 

A  queen-cell  is  usually  received  with  favor,  especially  if 
the  colony  has  been  queenless  for  twenty-four  hours.  If  we 
use  a  cell  we  must  be  careful  to  destroy  all  other  queen-cells 
that  may  be  formed  ;  and  if  the  one  we  supply  is  destroyed, 
wait  twenty-four  hours  and  introduce  another.  If  we  wait 
seven  or  eight  days,  and  then  destroy  all  their  queen-cells,  the 
bees  are  sure  to  accept  a  cell.  If  we  use  the  West  cell-protec- 
tor (Fig.  137)  then  there  is  of  course  no  danger. 

If  we  are  to  introduce  an  imported  queen,  or  one  of  very 
great  value,  we  might  make  a  new  colony,  all  of  young  bees. 
We  simply  place  two  or  three  combs  of  fully  matured  brood  in 
a  hive,  and  the  queen  on  them.  By  nightfall  there  will  be  a 
goodly  cluster  of  young  bees.     Unless  the  day  and  night  are 


OR,  MANUAt  OF  THE   APIARY. 


315 


warm  the  hive  must  be  set  in  a  warm  room.  The  entrance 
should  be  closed,  in  any  case.  This  keeps  the  queen  from 
leaving,  and  robber-bees  from  doing-  harm.  As  the  number  of 
bees  warrant  it,  more  brood  may  be  added,  and  by  adding 
capped  brood  alone  we  may  very  soon  have  a  full-sized  colony. 
By  having  a  colony  thus  Italianized  in  the  fall,  we  may 
commence  the  next  spring,  and,  as  described  in  the  section 
explaining  the  rearing  of  queens,  we  may  control  our  rearing 
of  drones,  queens,  and  all,  and  ere  another  autumn  have  only 


Fig.  143. 


Valcnti7i€^s  Cu7nb-Stavd. 

—From  A.  f.  Jloot  Co. 


Toung^n  Faisel. 


the  beautiful,  pure,  amiable,  and  active  Italians.  I  have  done 
this  several  times,  and  with  the  most  perfect  satisfaction.  I 
think  by  making  this  change  in  blood,  we  add  certainly  two 
dollars  to  the  value  of  each  colony,  and  I  know  of  no  other 
way  to  make  money  so  easily  and  pleasantly.  Newly  intro- 
duced queens  will  often  commence  laying  at  once;  almost 
always  within  two  or  three  days  ;  although  if  introduced  in 


316  THE  BEE-KEEPER'S  GUIDE  ; 

late  autumn,  when  the  bees  have  ceased   activity  for  the  win- 
ter, they  may  not  lay  until  spring. 

valentine's  comb-stand. 

In  the  work  of  finding  queens,  and  in  other  manipulations, 
it  is  often  desirable  to  take  out  frames.  If  these  are  set  down 
beside  the  hive  they  are  liable  to  injury.  J.  M.  Valentine  has 
given  us  a  "  comb  stand  "(Fig.  143).  As  will  be  seen  this 
holds  two  frames.  The  platform  is  handy  to  receive  tools, 
and  the  drawer  serves  well  to  hold  scissors,  knife,  queen- 
cages,  etc. 

Mr.  M.  G.  Young  has  invented  an  "  Easel  "  (Fig.  143)  for 
the  same  purpose.  This  will  hold  several  combs.  Of  course 
it  will  not  do  to  leave  combs  thus  exposed,  except  when  bees 
are  busy  in  the  field,  or  we  will  have  great  trouble  with  rob- 
ber-bees. I  have  not  found  such  devices  of  sufficient  use  to 
trouble  with  them. 

TO  t5ET  OUR  ITALIAN  QUEENS. 

At  present  the  novice,  and  probably  the  honey-producer 
who  prefers  to  purchase  rather  than  rear  his  queens,  better 
send  to  some  reliable,  experienced  breeder,  and  procure  "  dollar 
queens."  Unless  these  are  impurely  mated,  which  will  rarely 
happen  with  first-class  breeders,  they  are  just  as  good  as 
"  tested  queens."  Testing  only  refers  to  the  matter  of  pure 
mating. 

I  have  felt,  and  still  feel,  that  this  cheap  queen-traffic 
tends  to  haste,  not  care,  in  breeding,  and  that  with  "dollar 
queens  "  ruling  in  the  market,  there  is  lack  of  inducement  for 
that  careful,  painstaking  labor  that  is  absolutely  requisite  to 
give  us  the  best  race  of  bees.  It  is  justly  claimed,  however, 
in  favor  of  the  '*  dollar  queen  "  business,  that  it  has  hastened 
the  spread  of  Italian  bees,  gives  those  who  rather  buy  than 
rear  their  queens  a  cheap  market  in  which  to  purchase,  and, 
best  of  all,  weeds  out  of  the  business  all  but  the  most  skillful, 
cautious,  and  honest  breeders.  Only  skillful  men  can  make  it 
pay.  Only  cautious,  honest  men  can  find  a  market  for  their 
stock.  We  know  that  men  are  making  a  handsome  profit  in 
the  business,  and  at  the  same  time  are  giving  excellent  satis- 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY.  317 

faction.  This  is  the  best  argument  in  favor  of  any  business. 
I  repeat,  then,  that  the  beginner  better  purchase  "  dollar 
queens  "  of  some  reliable  breeder — one  who  has  made  queen- 
rearing  a  success  for  years,  and  given  general  satisfaction. 

I  have  feared  that  this  "cheap  queen  "  trafiSc  would  crush 
the  hard  effort,  requiring  study,  time,  money,  and  the  most 
cautious  experiment  and  observation,  necessary  to  give  us  a 
very  superior  race  of  bees.  There  is  reason  to  hope  now  that 
it  will,  at  most,  only  delay  it.  Enterprising  apiarists  see  in 
this  the  greatest  promise  for  improved  apiculture,  and  already 
are  moving  forward.  Enterprising  bee-keepers  will  purchase 
and  pay  well  for  the  bee  of  the  future  that  gives  sure  evidence 
of  superior  excellence.  One  thing  is  certain,  "  dollar  queens  " 
are  in  the  market,  and  are  in   demand ;  so,  whether  the  busi- 

FiG.  144. 


Benton  Cage.— From  Department  of  Agriculture. 

ness  tends  to  our  good  or  evil,  as  rational  men  we  must  accept 
the  situation  and  make  the  most  of  things  as  they  exist. 

Let  me  urge,  however,  upon  the  progressive  apiarist,  that 
there  is  no  possible  doubt  but  that  the  bees  of  the  future  will 
be  immensely  superior  to  those  of  to-day.  Man  can  and  will 
advance  here  as  he  has  in  breeding  all  other  stock.  If  the 
obstacles  in  the  way  are  greater  because  of  the  peculiar  natural 
history  of  the  bee,  then  the  triumph,  when  it  comes,  will  be 
greater,  and  the  success  more  praiseworthy. 

TO  SHIP  QDEENS. 

For  shipping  queens  the  character  of  the  shipping-cage 
and  of  the  food  are  of  the  first  importance.  Nothing  serves 
better  for  a  cage  than   Benton's  (Fig.  144),  already  mentioned. 


318  THE    bee-keeper's  GUIDE  ; 

As  shown  in  the  figure,  the  block  from  which  the  cage  is  made 
has  three  holes  bored  almost  through  it,  which  do  not  touch, 
but  are  connected  by  another  smaller  hole.  The  hole  af  one 
end  is  ventilated  by  small  holes,  as  seen  in  the  figure.  The 
grooves  prevent  suffocation  when  the  cage  is  wrapped  or  is 
snug  in  the  mail-bags.  At  the  other  end  the  hole  is  waxed, 
and  into  this  the  candy  is  packed,  and  before  the  wire-gauze 
is  added  comb  foundation  is  laid  on  to  preserve  the  moisture. 
Over  the  wire-gauze,  which  covers  the  holes,  wood  is  tacked. 
The  candy  or  food  apartment  has  a  corked  opening  at  the  end, 
the  others  at  the  side.  The  food  should  never  be  honey.  This 
may  daub  the  queen  and  cause  her  death.  If  the  food  consists 
of  hard  candy,  then  the  cage  must  contain  a  bottle  of  water, 
the  cork  of  which  has  a  small  opening,  through  which  is 
passed  a  small  cotton  string.  These  bottles  are  not  satisfac- 
tory, and  so  our  queen-breeders  have  discovered  a  moist  candy 
which  makes  them  unnecessary.  Fig.  145  shows  the  cages 
ready  for  mailing. 

THE    "  GOOD  "   CANDY. 

This  consists  of  powdered  sugar  moistened  with  the  best 
extracted  honey.  We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  I.  R.  Good  for  this 
cheap  and  excellent  food,  although  a  similar  candy  was  recom- 
mended in  Germany  by  Scholz  years  ago.  The  only  caution 
required  is  to  get  it  just  moist  enough  to  keep  it  soft,  and  not 
so  moist  that  it  will  drip  at  all.  The  honey  is  heated,  but  only 
to  thin  it ;  then  the  sugar  is  stirred  in  and  kneaded.  It  should 
stand  two  or  three  days.  If  too  thin  more  sugar  may  be  added. 
For  spring  feeding,  as  before  stated,  it  has  been  suggested  to 
stir  in  one-fourth  of  rye  meal,  to  serve  for  pollen.  In  many 
sections  this  is  unnecessary. 

PREPARATIONS  TO  SHIP. 

We  have  only  to  catch  the  queen  and  about  ten  workers 
and  introduce  them  into  the  cage.  We  hold  the  cage  in  the 
left  hand  with  the  thumb  over  the  hole,  to  keep  the  bees  in, 
and  with  the  right  hand  pick  up  the  queen  and  eight  or  ten 
worker-bees — bright  ones,  neither  very  young  nor  old — by 
grasping  the  wings  with  thumb  and  index  finger,  and  put 
them  into  the  cage.  Close  the  opening  by  inserting  the  cork, 
and  our  queen  is  ready  to  mail. 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY. 


319 


We  should  send  queens  by  mail  (Fig'.  145).  They  go  as 
safely  as  by  express,  and  it  costs  but  a  cent  or  two.  No  one 
should  presume,  on  any  account,  to  send  a  queen  by  mail,  unless 
the  queen-cage  is  covered  by  this  double  screen  and  is  provisioned 
as  before  directed,  instead  of  with  honey.  If  shippers  neglect 
these  precautions,  so  that  the  mails  become  daubed^  or  the 
mail  agents  stung-,  we  shall  again  lose  the  privilege  of  send- 
ing queens  by  mail. 

We  have  already  learned  how  to  introduce  the  queen.  We 
have  only  to  place  her  in  the  hive  under  the  quilt  or  between 

Fig.  145. 


Mailing-Cage. — From  A,  I.  Iiojt  ( <> 


two  frames,  and  to  withdraw  the  cork  at  the  candy  end.  The 
bees  will  soon  eat  the  candy,  and  the  queen  will  be  free.  If 
we  use  this  cage  to  introduce  a  virgin  of  some  age,  we  may 
well  paste  paper  over  the  holes  to  delay  the  exit. 

TO  MOVE  COlrONIES. 

Should  we  desire  to  purchase  Italians  or  other  colonies, 
the  only  requisites  to  safe  transport  are  :  A  wire-cloth  cover 
for  ventilation— in  shipping  by  express  in  hot  weather  it  is 
wise  to  put  wire  below  as  well  as  above— securely  fastening- 
the  frames  so  they  can  not  possibly  move,  and  combs  so  old 
that  they  shall  not  break  down  and  fall  out.  Of  course  the 
Hoffman  (Fig.  99)  close-fitting  frames  need  little  fastening-. 


320  THE  BEB-KBBPSR'S  GUIDE; 

They  fasten  themselves.  In  spring,  wire-gauze  over  the 
entrance  usually  affords  enough  ventilation.  If  the  colony  is 
very  large,  and  the  weather  very  warm,  the  entire  top  of  the 
hive  should  be  open  and  covered  with  gauze,  or  the  bees  may 
smother.  The  entrance  ought  also  to  be  covered  with  gauze. 
Dr.  C.  C.  Miller,  in  his  valuable  little  book,  "  A  Year  Among 
the  Bees,"  offers  a  good  suggestion.  It  is  to  double  a  narrow 
piece  of  wire-gauze,  a  little  longer  than  the  entrance  to  the 
hive,  and  tack  the  cut  edges  to  one  side  of  a  similar  shaped 
piece  of  soft  wood,  so  that  it  will  project  one-half  inch  below. 
By  screwing  or  tacking  this  strip  just  above  the  entrance  of  a 
hive,  we  quickly  shut  the  bees  in.  Several  of  these  may  be 
made  in  advance.  I  find  them  very  convenient.  If  combs  are 
built  from  wired  foundation  they  will  not  break  down,  even  if 
new.  Bees  thus  shut  up  should  never  be  left  where  the  sun 
can  shine  on  them.  I  believe  that  comb  partly  filled  with 
water  would  be  grateful  to  the  bees  in  case  of  a  long  journey 
in  hot  weather.  In  the  cars  the  frames  should  extend  length- 
wise of  the  cars.  In  moving  in  a  wagon,  springs  or  a  good 
bed  of  straw  should  be  used,  and  the  frames  should  extend 
crosswise  of  the  wagon.  I  would  never  advise  moving  bees  in 
regions  of  cold  winters,  though  it  has  often  been  done  with 
entire  safety.  I  should  wish  the  bees  to  have  a  flight  very 
soon  after  such  disturbance.  Of  course  this  does  not  apply  to 
such  localities  as  California. 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY.  321 


CHAPTER  XIL 

EXTRACTING  AND  THE  EXTRACTOR. 

The  brood-chamber  is  often  so  filled  with  honey  that  the 
queen  has  no  room  to  lay  her  eg-gs,  especially  if  there  is  auy 
neglect  to  give  other  room  for  storing.  Honey  in  brood-combs 
is  unsalable,  because  the  combs  are  dark,  and  the  size  unde- 
sirable. Comb  is  very  valuable,  and  should  never  be  taken 
from  the  bees,  except  when  desired  to  render  the  honey  more 
marketable.  Hence,  the  apiarist  finds  a  very  efficient  auxiliary 
in  the 

HONEY-EXTRACTOR. 

No  doubt  some  have  expected  and  claimed  too  much  for 
this  machine.  It  is  equally  true  that  some  have  blundered 
quite  as  seriously  in  an  opposite  direction.  For,  since  Mr. 
Langstroth  gave  the  practical  movable  frame  to  the  world,  the 
apiarist  has  not  been  so  deeply  indebted  to  any  inventor  as  to 
him  who  gave  us,  in  1865,  the  "Mel  Extractor,"  Herr  von 
Hruschka,  of  Germany. 

The  principle  which  makes  this  machine  effective  is  that 
of  centrifugal  force,  and  it  was  suggested  to  Major  von 
Hruschka  by  noticing  that  a  piece  of  comb  which  was  twirled 
by  his  boy  at  the  end  of  a  string  was  emptied  of  its  honey. 
Herr  von  Hruschka's  machine  was  essentially  like  those  now 
so  common,  though  in  lightness  and  convenience  there  has 
been  a  marked  improvement.  His  machine  consisted  of  a 
wooden  tub,  with  a  vertical  axle  in  the  center,  which  revolved 
in  a  socket  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  while  from  the 
top  of  the  tub  fastenings  extended  to  the  axle,  which  projected 
for  a  distance  above.  The  axle  was  thus  held  exactly  in  the 
center  of  the  tub.  Attached  to  the  axle  was  a  frame  or  rack 
to  hold  the  comb,  whose  outer  face  rested  against  a  wire-cloth. 
The  axle  with  its  attached  frame,  which  latter  held  the 
uncapped    comb,   was  made  to    revolve  by  rapidly  unwind 


322 


THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 


ing  a  string  which  had  been  previously  wound  about  the  axle, 
after  the  manner  of  top-spininng.  Replace  the  wooden  tub 
with  one  of  tin,  and  the  string  with  gearing,  and  it  will  be 
seen  that  we  have  essentially  the   neat  extractor  of  to-day. 


Fig.  146. 


Fig.  147. 


Comb- Basket. 
-From  C.  F.  Muth. 


Fig. 148. 


United  States  Extractor. 
-From  American  JJee  Journal. 


Muth  Extractor. 
-From  C.  F,  Mnth. 


The  machine  is  of  foreign  invention,  is  not  covered  by  a  patent, 
and  so  may  be  made  by  any  one  who  desires  to  do  so. 

The  first  American  honey-extractor  was  that  made  by 
Messrs.  Langstroth  and  Wagner  (see  American  Bee  Journal, 
Vol.  Ill,  No.  10),  in  the  year  1867.  As  we  should  expect,  our 
enterprising  friends,  A.  I.  Root  (Novice),  M.  M.  Baldridge, 
who,  I   think,  was  first,  and  others   were  soon   in   the  field. 


OR,   MANUAl,  OF  XHK  APIARY.  323 

Some  of  these  early  extractors,  like  the  Peabody,  ran  without 
gearing  ;  others,  like  Mr,  Baldridge's,  were  of  wood,  while 
Mr.  Langstroth's,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  engraving,  was 
very  much  like  the  ones  of  to-day. 

DBSIRABI^E   POINTS  IN   AN   EXTRACTOR. 

The  machine  (Fig.  146)  should  be  as  light  as  is  consistent 
with  strength.  It  is  desirable  that  the  can  be  made  of  tin,  as 
it  will  be  neater  and  more  easily  kept  sweet  and  clean.  The 
can  should  be  stationary,  so  that  only  a  light  frame  (Fig.  147) 
shall  revolve  with  the  comb.  In  some  of  the  extractors  (Fig. 
147)  the  walls  of  this  frame  incline.  This  keeps  the  frames 
from  falling  in  when  the  machine  is  at  rest,  but  varies  the 
centrifugal  force  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  comb,  which  is 
urged  as  an  objection.  Of  course  this  difference  in  force  is 
very  slight.  Some  of  the  extractors,  like  the  United  States 
(Fig.  146),  are  made  so  that  the  whole  center  can  be  removed  in 
a  moment,  and  with  the  central  axis  removed  so  that  combs  can 
be  reversed  without  removal  from  the  extractor,  both  of  which 
are  substantial  improvements.  But  the  most  decided  improve- 
ment is  seen  in  the  automatic  extractor.  This  extractor  (Fig. 
149)  is  so  made  that  the  combs  can  be  quickly  reversed  without 
removal  from  the  extractor.  This  machine,  although  it  costs 
more  than  any  other,  will  be  especially  prized  in  large  apiaries. 
By  simply  reversing  the  motion  the  combs  are  also  reversed. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  machine  should  run  with  gearing, 
not  only  for  ease,  but  also  to  insure  or  allow  an  even  motion, 
so  that  we  need  not  throw  even  drone-larvae  from  the  brood- 
cells  while  in  the  act  of  extracting.  In  some  machines  the 
crank  runs  in  a  horizontal  plane  (Fig.  146),  in  others  in  a  ver- 
tical plane  (Fig.  148).  Both  styles  have  their  friends.  I  think 
there  is  little  choice  between  them.  The  arrangement  for  exit 
of  the  honey  should  permit  a  speedy  and  perfect  shut-off.  A 
molasses-gate  is  excellent  to  serve  for  a  faucet.  I  also  prefer 
that  the  can  should  hold  30  or  40  pounds  of  honey  before  it 
would  be  necessary  to  let  the  honey  flow  from  it.  Large  api- 
arists, like  Mr.  Mclntyre,  use  power  to  run  the  extractor,  and 
let  the  honey  run  continuously  into  a  large  tank  below. 

In  case  of  small  frames,  I  should  prefer  that  the  comb- 


324 


THE  beekeeper's  guide; 


basket  might  hold  four,  or  even  more,  frames.  The  comb- 
basket  should  be  placed  so  low  in  the  can  that  no  honey  will 
be  thrown  over  the  top  to  daub  the  person  using-  the  extractor. 
I  think  that  a  wire  attachment  with  a  tin  bottom  (Fig.  150,  a,b) 
and  made  to  hook  on  to  the  comb-basket,  which  will  hold  pieces 
of  comb  not  in  frames,  is  a  desirable  addition  to  an  extractor. 
At  present  all  our  large   apiarists    use  automatic  reversing 

Fig.  149. 


Inside  t'owaii^s  Autvmntle  Extractor. 
—From  A.  I.  JtootCo. 


extractors,  invented,  I  think,  by  Mr.  Thos.  W.  Cowan.  These 
reverse  the  combs  automatically  while  in  motion,  and  so  are  a 
great  saving  of  time. 

The  can,  if  metal,  which  is  lighter,  and  to  be  preferred  to 
wood,  as  it  does  not  sour  nor  absorb  the  honey,  should  be  of 
tin,  so  as  not  to  rust.  A  cover  (Fig.  148)  to  protect  the  honey 
from  dust,  when  not  in  use,  is  very  desirable.  The  circular 
cloth  cover,  gathered  around  the  edge  by  a  string  or  a  rubber, 
as  made  by  Mr.  A.  I.  Root,  is  excellent  for  this  purpose.    As 


OK,  MANUAL   OF   THE   APIARY. 


325 


no  capped  honey  can  be  extracted,  it  is  necessary  to  uncap  it, 
■which  is  done  by  shaving  oflf  the  thin  caps.  To  do  this,  noth- 
ing is  comparable  in  excellence  to  the  Bingham  &  Hethering- 
ton  honey-knife  (Fig.    151).     After   a    thorough   trial  of  this 

Fig.  150. 


From  American  Bee  Journal. 


knife,  here  at  the  college,  we  pronounced  it  decidedly  superior 
to  any  other  that  we  have  used,  though  we  have  several  of  the 
principal  knives  made  in  the  United  States.  I  do  not  think 
the  bee-Jieeper  can  aiford  to  use  any  other  knife.  This  knife 
is  peculiar  for  its  thick  blade,  which  is  beveled  on  the  edge. 

USE  OF  THE   EXTRACTOR. 

Although  some  of  our  most  experienced  apiarists  say  nay,  it 
is  nevertheless  a  fact,  that  the  queen  sometimes  remains  idle, 

Fig.  151. 


Bingham  Knife.— From  T.  F.  Bingham. 

or  extrudes  her  eggs  only  to  be  lost,  simply  because  there  are 
no  empty  cells.  The  honey-yield  is  so  great  that  the  workers 
occupy  every  available  space,  and  sometimes  they  even  become 
unwilling  idlers  simply  because  of  necessity.  It  is  true  that 
the  proper  arrangement  and  best  management  of  frames  for 
surplus  would  prevent  this.     Yet  in  every  apiary  such  a  condi- 


326  THE  BEE-KBEPER'S  GUIDE  ; 

tion  will  occasioaally  occur  ;  at  such   times  we  should  always 
extract  from  the  brood-chamber. 

The  extractor  also  enables  the  apiarist  to  secure  honey- 
extracted  honey — in  poor  seasons,  when  he  could  get  very  little, 
if  any,  in  sections  or  boxes.  By  use  of  the  extractor  we  can 
largely  avoid  swarming,  and  thus  work  for  honey  instead  of 
increase  of  colonies. 

By  use  of  the  extractor,  at  any  time  or  season,  the  apiarist 
— especially  the  beginner — can  secure  nearly,  if  not  quite, 
double  the  amount  of  honey  that  he  could  get  in  combs.  It 
requires  much  more  skill  to  succeed  in  procuring  comb  honey 
than  is  required  to  secure  extracted.  The  beginner  will 
usually  succeed  far  better  if  he  work  for  extracted  honey. 

The  extractor  enables  us  to  remove  uncapped  honey  in  the 
fall,  which,  if  left  in  the  hive,  may  prove  injurious  to  the  bees. 
It  is  usually  better,  however,  to  let  the  bees  do  this.  By  giving 
many  frames — hundreds  at  a  time — these  may  be  given  to  bees 
in  a  box  or  in  hives  piled  high  above  each  other,  right  in  the 
apiary. 

By  use  of  the  extractor,  too,  we  can  throw  the  honey  from 
our  surplus  brood-combs  in  the  fall,  and  thus  have  a  salable 
article,  and  have  the  empty  combs,  which  are  invaluable  for 
use  the  next  spring. 

If  the  revolving  racks  of  the  extractor  have  a  wire  basket 
attachment  (Fig.  150),  as  I  have  suggested,  the  uncapped  sec- 
tions can  be  emptied  in  the  fall  and  used  the  following  spring 
at  a  marked  advantage.  These,  of  course,  may  be  cleaned  by 
the  bees,  as  above  described,  or,  if  we  have  but  few,  by  plac- 
ing them  in  a  super  above  any  strong  colony.  Pieces  of  drone- 
comb  cut  from  the  brood-chamber,  which  are  so  admirable  for 
starters  in  the  sections,  can  be  emptied  of  their  honey  at  any 
season. 

By  use  of  the  extractor  we  can  furnish  at  two-thirds  the 
price  we  ask  for  comb  honey,  an  article  which  is  equal,  if  not 
superior,  to  the  best  comb  honey,  and,  which,  were  it  not  for 
appearance  alone,  would  soon  drive  the  latter  from  the  market. 
Extracted  honey  is  also  much  more  easily  and  safely  shipped. 

Indeed,  extracted  honey   is  gaining  so  rapidly  in  public 


OR,  MANtJAI,   OF   THE   APIARY.  32^ 

favor  that  even   now  its  production    is  far  in  excess  of   that 
of  comb  honey. 

Of  course,  extracted  honey  will  never  sell  at  a  price  equal 
to  that  of  comb.  Yet  many  bee-keepers  will  secure  enoug-h 
more  to  more  than  make  up  for  this.  Again,  the  extractor  is 
ever  a  temptation  to  rob  the  bees,  so  that  with  winter  will 
come  starvation. 

WHEN  TO  USE  THE  EXTRACTOR. 

The  novice  should  not  extract  unless  the  bees  are  working, 
else  he  will  be  very  likely  to  induce  robbing-.  Even  the  experi- 
enced bee-keeper  must  be  very  careful  at  such  times.  The 
bee-tent,  soon  to  be  described,  is  a  great  help  then. 

If  extracted  honey  can  be  sold  for  half  that  secured  for 
comb  honey,  the  extractor  may  be  used  profitably  the  summer 
through  ;  otherwise  it  may  be  used  as  suggested  by  the  prin- 
ciples stated  above. 

I  would  always  extract  just  as  the  bees  commence  capping 
the  honey.  Then  we  avoid  the  labor  of  uncapping,  and  still 
have  the  honey  thick  and  nearly  ripe,  as  it  is  styled.  I  have 
proved  over  and  over  that  honey  may  be  extracted  when  quite 
thin,  and  artificially  ripened  or  evaporated,  and  be  equal  to  the 
very  best.  However,as  there  is  danger  of  imperfect  ripening  it  is 
wisest  to  leave  it  in  the  combs  till  the  bees  commence  capping 
it.  Many  tier  up  and  leave  all  in  the  hive  till  the  busy  season 
is  over,  then  extract  all,  when  the  honey  is  of  course  thick  and 
of  the  best  quality.  This  is  the  method  advised  and  practiced 
by  such  able  authorities  as  the  Dadants.  This  requires  great 
care  because  of  robbing.  Unripe  honey  usually  has  a  greenish 
tinge,  and  does  not  granulate  as  completely  as  does  well- 
ripened  honey.  If  the  honey  granulates,  it  can  be  reduced  to 
the  fluid  state  with  no  injury  by  heating,  though  the  tempera- 
ture should  never  rise  above  200  degrees  F.  This  can  best  be 
done  by  placing  the  vessel  containing  the  honey  in  another 
containing  water,  though  if  the  second  vessel  be  set  on  a  stove, 
a  tin  basin  or  pieces  of  wood  should  prevent  the  honey  vessel 
from  touching-  the  bottom,  else  the  honey  will  burn.  As  before 
stated,  the  best  honey  is  pretty  sure  to  crystallize,  but  it  may 
often  be  prevented  by  keeping  it   in  a   temperature  which  is 


328  THE  beb-keeper's  guide; 

constantly  above  80  degrees  F.  If  canned  honey  is  set  on 
top  of  a  furnace  in  which  a  fire  is  kept  burning,  it  will  remain 
liquid  indefinitely.  If  honey  is  heated  to  180  degrees  F.  and 
sealed,  it  will  be  uninjured,  and  generally  remains  ever  after 
liquid.  It  may  be  cheaply  canned  in  the  usual  fruit  cans,  or 
in  bottles,  if  we  dip  the  tops  in  melted  wax  after  corking,  to 
insure  making  all  air-tight.  Granulated  honey,  if  reduced, 
will  often  remain  permanently  liquid.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that 
unripe  honey  is  quicker  to  granulate  than  is  honey  that  is 
thoroughly  evaporated.  If  we  drain  the  liquid  from  hopey 
that  is  partially  granulated,  and  melt  the  hard  crystals,  we 
secure  a  very  superior  product.  If  candied  honey  is  but  par- 
tially crystallized,  the  liquid  part  may  color  all  as  we  melt  the 
crystals,  even  though  we  do  not  burn  it. 

The  fact  that  honey  granulates  is  the  best  test  of  its 
purity.  To  be  sure,  some  honey  does  not  crystallize,  but  if 
honey  does  we  may  pretty  safely  decide  that  it  is  unadulterated. 

To  render  the  honey  free  from  small  pieces  of  comb  or 
other  impurities,  it  should  either  be  passed  through  a  cloth  or 
wire  sieve — I  purposely  refrain  from  the  use  of  the  word 
strainer,  as  we  should  neither  use  the  word  strained,  nor  allow 
it  to  be  used,  in  connection  with  extracted  honey — or  else  draw 
it  off  into  a  barrel,  with  a  faucet  or  molasses-gate  near  the 
lower  end,  and  after  all  particles  of  solid  matter  have  risen  to 
the  top,  draw  off  the  clear  honey  from  the  bottom.  In  case  of 
very  thick  honey,  this  method  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  the 
first.  I  hardly  need  say  that  honey,  when  heated,  is  thinner, 
and  will  of  course  pass  more  readily  through  common  towel- 
ing or  fine  wire-cloth.  If  a  sheet  of  queen-excluding  zinc  is 
used  between  the  brood-chamber  and  upper  story  we  shall 
have  no  brood  above.  This  saves  great  loss  in  honey,  for 
rearing  drones  is  very  expensive,  and  also  saves  a  deal  of 
vexation.  The  apiarist  enjoys  full  frames  of  honey,  and  is 
annoyed  at  great  patches  of  drone-brood  in  the  extracting 
supers  ;  neither  does  he  enjoy  cutting  off  the  heads  of  drone- 
brood  to  rid  the  hives  of  these  expensive  hangers  on. 

Never  allow  the  queen  to  be  forced  to  idleness  for  want 
of  empty  cells.  Extract  all  uncapped  honey  in  the  fall,  and 
the  honey  from  all  the  brood-combs  not  needed  for  winter, 


OR,  MANUAL  OF   THB  APIARY. 


329 


unless  we  allow  the  bees  to  clean  the  combs  as  above  described. 
The  honey  should  also  be  thrown  from  pieces  of  drone-comb 
which  are  cut  from  the  brood-frames,  and  from  the  uncapped 
comb  in  sections  at  the  close  of  the  season. 

Fig.  152. 


Coinb-Bux.'-^From  A,  I.  Hoot  Co. 


The  apiarist  should  possess  one  or  two  light  comb-boxes  or 
baskets  (Fig.  152)  of  sufficient  size  to  hold  all  the  frames  from 
a  single  hive.  These  should  have  convenient  handles,  and  a 
close-fitting  cover.    Many  large  apiarists  prefer  a  comb-cart 

Ftg.  153. 


OsbuniK^  Cotnb-Cart. — From  A.  I.  Hoot  Co. 

(Fig.  153).  The  box  of  this  is  much  like  a  hive,  and  to  one 
end  a  cloth  cover  is  tacked.  Thus,  the  combs  are  easily  cov- 
ered and  carried.  The  bees  may  be  shaken  off  or  brushed  off 
with  a  large  feather,  pine  twig,  or  other  brush.     A  little  experi- 


330  THE  BEK-li:BKPER'S  GUIDE  J 

ence  makes  it- easy  to  shake  bees — even  Italians — from  a  comb. 
A  quick,  forcible,  vertical  jerk  will  always  do  it.  We  often 
find  that  a  mild  jar,  quickly  followed  by  an  energetic  one,  will' 
fell  nearly  every  bee  from  the  comb.     The  Davis  brush  (Fig. 

Fig.  154. 


Davis  Brush. — From  A.  I.  Boot  Co. 

154)  is  excellen*  for  removing  bees  from  the  combs.  It  is  kept 
for  sale  by  supply  dealers.  A  soft  brush  broom  (Fig.  ISS)  is 
excellent.  It  should  be  long  and  slim,  and  will  be  less  harsh 
if  partially  thinned.     If  the  bees  are  troublesome,  close  the 

Fig.  155. 


Coggshall  Bee-Brtish. — From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 

box  or  cart  cover  as  soon  as  each  comb  is  placed  inside.  The 
Porter  or  other  good  bee-escape  (Fig.  160)  is  a  bonanza  in 
extracting.  We  should  have  several  honey-boards,  each  with 
an  escape.     One  is  placed  under  the  extracting-combs  of  each 


OR,    MANUAL  OP   THK    APIAK' 


331 


colony  at  nightfall.  In  the  morning  the  bees  will  be  all  below, 
and  so  each  extracting-hive  of  combs  can  be  carried  at  once  to 
the  extractor.  By  having  extra  sets  of  extracting-combs  we 
may  at  once  replace  the  ones  removed,  and  thus  have  only  to 
go  to  a  hive  once.  Because  of  the  cool  nights  these  escapes 
do  not  always  work  as  well  in  California,  Extract  the  honey 
from  these,  using  care  not  to  turn  so  hard  as  to  throw  out  the 
brood.  If  capped,  and  it  always  should  be  partially  capped 
before  extracting,  with  a  thin  knife  pare  off  the  caps,  and 
after  throwing  the  honey  from  one  side  turn  the  comb  around 

Fig,  156. 


Mclniyrt's  Uncapping- Box. 
From  A.  I.  Hoot  Co. 


DculnnVs  Fticnpiiiutf-(\in. 
From  A.  J.  Jiooi  Co. 


and  extract  it  from  the  other.  The  Dadant  uncapping-cau 
(Fig.  156)  will  be  very  convenient.  It  is  formed  like  the  extrac- 
tor, and  consists  of  two  parts,  about  equal.  The  upper  fits 
into  the  lower,  -which  has  a  fine  wire  screen  at  the  top,  and  a 
discharge  gate  at  the  bottom,  A  comb-rest  holds  the  combs. 
This  drains  the  cappings,  and  gives  us  a  very  superior  quality 
of  honey.  Mr.  Mclntyre  uses  a  large  box  (Fig.  157)  six  feet 
long,  with  a  tin  tray  at  the  bottom.  The  comb-rest  is  on  a 
pivot,  so  as  to  turn  readily.  The  large  size  insures  quick 
drainage,  so  that  the  cappings  are  soon  ready  for  the  solar 


332 


THS  BEB-KKEPBR  S  GUIDE; 


wax-extractor.  If  the  combs  are  of  very  different  weights,  it 
will  be  better  for  the  extractor  to  use  those  of  nearly  equal 
weights  on  opposite  sides,  as  the  strain  will  be  much  less. 
Now  take  these  combs  to  another  colony,  whose  combs  shall 
be  replaced  by  them.  Then  close  the  hive,  extract  this  second 
set  of  combs,  and  thus  proceed  till  all  the  honey  has  been 
extracted.  At  the  close,  the  one  or  two  colonies  from  which 
the  first  combs  were  taken  shall  receive  pay  from  the  last  set 

Fig. 158. 


EooVs  Bee-Tent,  folded  and  pitched. 
—  From  A.  I.  Hoot  Co. 


extracted,  and  thus,  with  much  saving  of  robbing,  in  case 
there  is  no  gathering,  we  have  gone  rapidly  through  the  apiary. 

Some  apiarists  take  the  first  set  of  combs  from  a  single 
colony,  and  leave  the  colony  without  combs  till  they  are 
through  for  the  day.  A  better  way  is  to  keep  an  extra  set  of 
combs  on  hand.  If  the  bee-keeper  works  for  extracted  honey, 
the  extracting-combs  should  be  kept  separately  in  an  upper 
story  (Figs.  84  and  87),  while  the  queen  and  breeding  should 
be  kept  below  in  the  lower  story  of  the  hive. 

In  case  the  bees  are  not  gathering,  we  shall  escape  rob- 
bing and  stings  by  the  use  of  the  tent  (Fig.  158).     This  covers 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF  THB  APIARY.  333 

the  hive  and  operator.  The  one  figured  is  very  ingenious  in 
its  construction,  is  light  and  cheap.  Mr.  Root  sells  it  all  made 
for  use  for  $1.50. 

TO  KEEP  EXTRACTED   HONEY. 

Extracted  honey,  if  to  be  sold  in  cans  or  bottles,  may  be 
run  into  them  from  the  extractor.  The  honey  should  be  thick, 
and  the  vessels  may  be  sealed  or  corked,  and  boxed  at  once. 

If  large  quantities  of  honey  are  extracted,  it  may  be  most 
conveniently  kept  in  barrels.  These  should  be  Srst-class,  and 
ought  to  be  waxed  before  using  them,  to  make  assurance 
doubly  sure  against  any  leakage.  No  rosin  should  be  used 
with  the  wax,  as  it  injures  the  honey.  Good  second-hand  alco- 
hol barrels  are  excellent,  and  cost  but  $1.00.  These  and 
whisky  barrels  need  no  waxing.  They  must  be  thoroughly 
cleaned,  but  must  never  be  charred  by  burning  inside.  To 
wax  the  barrels,  we  may  use  beeswax,  but  paraffine  is  cheaper, 
and  just  as  efficient.  Three  or  four  quarts  of  the  hot  paraffine 
or  wax  should  be  turned  into  the  barrel,  the  bung  driven  in 
tight,  the  barrel  twirled  in  every  position,  after  which  the 
bung  is  loosened  by  a  blow  with  the  hammer,  and  the  residue 
of  the  wax  turned  out.  Economy  requires  that  the  barrels  be 
warm  when  waxed,  so  that  only  a  thin  coat  will  be  appro- 
priated. Barrels  must  be  tight  without  soaking,  though  it  is 
best  to  drive  the  hoops  well  before  using  them.  We  should 
also  test  them  by  use  of  a  little  hot  water  before  use.  If,  when 
sealed,  no  steam  escapes  they  are  surely  tight.  Cypress  kegs 
are  much  used  for  smaller  vessels,  but  are  more  expensive, 
while  the  second-hand  alcohol  barrel  holds  about  500  pounds. 
Kegs  that  hold  respectively  50,  100,  and  175  pounds  cost  40,  60, 
and  80  cents.  Barrels  or  kegs  should  never  be  soaked,  as  the 
honey  absorbs  the  water,  and  leaking  will  almost  surely  fol- 
low. If  driving  the  hoops  and  waxing  will  not  make  them 
tight,  then  they  are  unfit  for  use. 

Earge  tin  cans,  waxed  and  soldered  at  the  openings  after 
being  filled,  are  cheap,  and  may  be  the  most  desirable  recepta- 
cles for  extracted  honey.  Tin  cans  are  rapidly  replacing  bar- 
rels for  honey.  These  are  made  of  various  sizes,  and  are 
shipped  either  in   a  wooden  jacket  {Fig.  189)  or  packed  in  bar- 


334  THE  bee-kbeper's  guide  ; 

rels.     In  the  dry  climate  of  California  these    are  absolutely 
necessary.     Barrels  are  unsafe. 

Extracted  honey,  unless  sealed,  should  always  be  kept  in 
dry  apartments.  If  thin  when  extracted,  it  should  be  kept  in 
open  barrels  or  cans  in  a  warm,  dry  room  till  it  has  thoroughly 
ripened.  If  quite  thin  it  must  be  kept  in  a  quite  warm  room, 
in  very  shallow  vessels.  In  this  way  I  have  ripened  very  thin 
honey,  so  it  was  of  excellent  quality.  In  all  such  cases  the 
vessels  should  be  covered,  by  cheese-cloth.  To  remove  ex- 
tracted honey  from  a  barrel,  etc.,  we  may  remove  one  head,  or, 
if  practicable,  the  vessel  may  be  put  in  hot  water,  which 
should  never  be  above  180^  F. ,  and  soon  the  honey  will  run 
off. 


OR,   MANUAI<  OF  THB  APIARY.  335 


CHAPTER  Xra. 

WORKING  FOR  COMB  HONEY. 

While  extracted  honey  has  so  much  to  recommend  it,  and 
is  rapidly  growing  in  favor  with  American  apiarists,  still  such 
reports  as  that  of  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller,  who  in  1884  increased  his 
174  colonies  to  202,  and  took  16,900  pounds  of  comb  honey  in 
one-pound  sections,  which  netted  him  very  nearly  $3000 ;  and 
that  of  Mr.  Doolittle,  who  has  secured  nearly  100  pounds  of 
comb  honey  per  colony  for  a  long  series  of  years,  may  well 
lead  us  not  to  ignore  this  branch  of  our  business.  The  showy 
horse,  or  the  red  short-horn,  may  not  be  intrinsically  superior 
to  the  less  attractive  animals ;  but  they  will  always  win  in  the 
market.  So  comb  honey,  in  the  beautiful  one-pound  sections, 
mil  always  attract  buyers  and  secure  the  highest  price.  As 
more  embark  in  the  production  of  extracted  honey,  higher  will 
be  the  price  of  the  irresistible,  incomparable  comb  honey. 
Well,  then,  may  we  study  how  to  secure  the  most  of  this 
exquisite  product  of  the  bees,  in  a  form  that  shall  rival  in 
attractiveness  that  of  the  -product  itself,  for  very  likely  the 
state  of  the  market  in  some  localities  will  make  its  production 
the  most  profitable  feature  of  apiculture. 

POINTS  TO  CONSIDER. 

To  secure  abundance  of  comb  honey  the  colonies  must  be 
very  strong,  and  the  brood-combs  full  of  brood  at  the  dawn  of 
the  honey  harvest.  The  swarming-fever  must  be  kept  at  bay 
or  cured  before  the  rapid  storing  commences,  and  the  honey 
should  be  secured  in  the  most  attractive  form. 

TO  SECURE  STRONG  COLONIES. 
By  feeding  daily,  whenever  the   bees  are  not  storing,  com- 
mencing as  soon  as  the  bees  commence   to  store  pollen,  we 
shall  most  certainly,  if  the  bees  have  been   well  wintered, 
secure  this  result.    Yet  bees  are  naturally  active  after  their 


336  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

long  winter's  rest,  and  this  stimulative  feeding  rarely  pays. 
We  should  also  use  the  division-board,  and  keep  the  bees 
crowded,  especially  if  weak  in  the  spring.  Only  give  them 
the  number  of  combs  that  they  can  cover.  It  is  very  impor- 
tant to  keep  all  warm.  Doolittle  says  this  necessitates  a  tele- 
scope cover  to  the  hive.  Though  this  last  may  with  proper 
management  be  unnecessary,  it  certainly  does  no  harm ;  it 
may  aid  greatly.  True,  Mr.  Heddon  objects  to  this  work  of 
feeding  and  manipulating  division-boards,  and  secures  much 
honey  and  money.  I  have  often  wondered  what  his  genius 
and  skill  would  accomplish  should  he  vary  his  method  in  this 
respect.  Instead  of  feeding  by  use  of  the  Smith  (Fig.  127)  or 
other  feeder,  we  may  uncap  a  comb  of  honey  and  with  it 
separate  combs  of  brood  as  the  bees  get  two  or  three  full  frames 
of  the  latter.  This  will  stimulate  the  bees,  and  as  they  will 
carry  the  honey  from  the  uncapped  cells  the  queen  will  be 
impelled  to  most  rapid  laying.  We  may  also  fill  empty  combs 
as  already  described,  and  place  these  in  or  close  beside  the 
brood-nest.  By  turning  around  the  brood-combs,  or  separating 
them  by  adding  combs  with  empty  cells  as  the  colonies  gain 
in  strength,  we  hasten  brood-rearing  to  the  utmost.  This 
matter  of  separating  the  brood-combs  must  be  very  cautiously 
managed  or  brood  will  be  chilled  and  much  harm  done.  Most 
bee-keepers  do  not  take  all  this  pains.  Each  one's  experience 
must  be  guide. 

TO   AVOID  THE   SWARMING-FEVER. 

This  is  not  always  possible  by  any  method,  and  has  ever 
been  the  obstacle  in  the  way  of  successful  comb-honey  produc- 
tion. The  swarming  impulse  and  great  yields  of  this  delecta- 
ble product  are  entirely  antagonistic.  Messrs.  Heddon,  Davis, 
and  others,  let  the  bees  swarm.  They  hive  these  swarms  on 
foundation,  and  hope  to  have  this  all  done,  and  both  colonies 
strong,  in  time  for  the  honey  harvest.  Messrs.  Hutchinson 
and  Doolittle  hive  the  swarm  ou  empty  frames,  always^  how- 
ever, with  starters,  placing  sections  with  their  foundation,  or 
better,  comb,  on  the  hive  at  once.  It  is  specially  desirable  to 
have  a  few  combs  in  the  sections,  to  bait  the  bees  and  attract 
them  to  the  supers.    They  also  restrict  the  brood-chamber, 


OR,    MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  337 

either  by  filling-  the  space  with  division-boards  (Doolittle),  or  by 
using  the  lower  half  of  a  horizontally  divided  brood-chamber 
(Hutchinson),  see  new  Heddon  hive,  p.  189.  In  this  way  the 
whole  working  force  is  put  at  once  into  the  sections.  Some  of 
our  best  Michigan  and  New  York  bee-keepers,  with  Dr.  Miller, 
let  the  bees  swarm,  and  return  them,  either  caging  the  queen 
or  placing  her  in  a  nucleus  for  seven  days,  then  return  her  to 
the  bees,  after  cutting  out  the  queen-cells.  This  takes  nothing 
frpm  the  energy  of  the  bees,  and  will  doubtless  work  best  of 
all  methods  in  the  hands  of  the  beginner.  In  this  case,  as  the 
full  energy  of  the  colony  is  turned  to  storing,  the  amount  of 
honey  would  be  theoretically  greater.  My  practice  sustains 
the  theory.  Such  authorities  as  Messrs.  Hetherington  and 
Elwood  practice  this  method.  J.  H.  Robertson  kills  the  old 
queen,  and  in  seven  days  destroys  all  but  the  largest  queen-cell, 
and  so  gains  the  same  end,  and  requeens  his  apiary.  If 
increase  is  desired,  however,  then  Mr.  Hutchinson's  method 
should  be  followed.  The  yield  of  comb  honey  in  this  last  case 
will  not  usually  be  so  great,  though  in  excellent  seasons  it 
may  be  greater. 

Some  very  able  bee-keepers  manipulate  so  skillfully  by 
adding  empty  combs  to  the  hives,  as  to  keep  this  swarming 
impulse  in  check,  and  still  keep  the  bees  increasing  most 
rapidly.  Others  divide  the  colonies,  and  so  hold  at  bay  the 
swarming-fever.  All  must  practice  as  their  own  experience 
proves  best,  as  the  same  method  will  not  have  equal  value 
with  different  persons.  We  must  work  as  best  we  can  to  secure 
strong  colonies,  and  check  or  retard  the  swarming-fever,  and, 
while  learning  by  experience  to  do  this,  may  well  work  the 
most  of  our  bees  for  extracted  honey,  which  is  more  easily 
secured,  and  is  sure  to  be  in  demand,  even  though  the  price  is 
less.  The  quantity  may  more  than  compensate  for  lower 
price. 

ADJUSTMENT  OK  SECTIONS. 
As  before  suggested,  a  wide  space  between  bottom-bars  of 
sections— three-eighths  inch— is  desirable.  J.  A.  Green  has 
half-story  supers  with  frames  only  one-half  as  deep  for 
extracting.  These  are  put  one  on  each  hive  at  the  dawn  of 
the  honey  harvest.    As  soon  as  the  bees  commence  to  work  in 


338  THE  BEE-KBKPER'S  GUIDE  ; 

them,  they  are  removed  or  raised  and  a  section-case  put  in 
their  place.  As  the  bees  commence  in  the  sections  these 
extracting  half-story  hives  are  used  one  above  another  with 
such  colonies  as  are  worked  for  extracted  honey.  The  sections 
should  be  on  at  the  very  dawn  of  each  honey  harvest,  as  white 
clover,  basswood,  etc.  At  first  the  full  set  of  sections  better 
not  be  added,  but  as  soon  as  the  bees  commence  to  work  well 
in  them,  they  all  should  be  added,  on  side  and  top,  if  side-stor- 
ing is  practiced,  and,  if  we  wish  to  tier  up,  the  case  of  sections 
first  added  should  be  raised  and  others  added  below.  I  like 
this  practice  of  tiering  up  very  much.  As  soon  as  the  bees  are 
working  well  in  all  the  sections  I  raise  the  case  and  place 
another  underneath.  This  is  continued,  often  till  there  are 
three  cases  of  sections  on  a  single  hive.  Some  think  that  if 
the  unfilled  case  of  sections  is  placed  above  instead  of  below, 
that  less  unfilled  sections  will  remain  at  the  close  of  the 
season,  as  the  warmth  higher  up  is  grateful  to  the  bees.  As 
already  stated,  it  is  best  not  to  have  the  sections  too  closely 
shut  in.     Slight  ventilation  is  often  desirable. 

If  the  queen  troubles  by  entering  the  sections,  use  may  be 
made  of  the  perforated  zinc  (Fig.  91),  or,  better  still,  the  queen- 
excluding  honey-board  (Fig.  91),  to  keep  her  from  them.  As 
already  suggested,  we  mbst  arrange  the  form  and  size  of  sec- 
tions as  the  market  and  our  hives  and  apparatus  make  most 
desirable.  We  may  vary  the  size  and  form  of  our  sections  so 
as  to  make  them  smaller,  and  yet  use  the  same  cases  or  frames 
that  we  used  with  larger  sections.  Small  sections  are  most 
ready  of  sale,  and  safest  to  ship  ;  yet  with  their  use  we  may 
secure  less  honey. 

If  we  can  get  nice,  straight  combs  by  having  them  less 
thick  without  using  separators  in  the  sections,  so  that  these 
latter  can  be  readily  placed  side  by  side  in  shipping-cases, 
then  we,  by  all  means,  better  omit  the  separators.  If  we  use 
separators,  we  can  use  wood  or  tin.  Wood  is  cheapest,  and  I 
find  that  in  practice  it  serves  even  better  than  tin.  The  plain 
sections  with  fence  (page  241)  give  separators  and  wide  con- 
nections, and  are  sure  to  grow  in  favor. 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY. 


GETTING  BEES  INTO  SECTIONS. 


The  crowded  hive  or  brood-chamber,  with  no  intent  to 
swarm,  the  wide  spaces  between  sections,  and  a  rich  harvest 
of  nectar  will  usually  send  the  bees  into  the  sections  with  a 
rush.  If  they  refuse  to  go,  sections  with  comb,  a  little  drone- 
brood,  or  the  exchange  of  sections  temporarily  from  above  to 
the  brood-nest,  or  the  moving  of  a  brood-frame  up  beside  the 
sections  for  a  short  time,  as  before  described,  will  frequently 
start  the  bees  into  the  sections.  Some  apiarists  will  have  their 
cases  with  sections  so  made  that  they  can  be  placed  between 
the  brood-frames  till  the  bees  commence  to  work  in  the  sec- 
tions ;  others  accomplish  the  same  end  by  inverting  the  frames. 
Sections  filled  with  foundation— only  very  thin  foundation 
should  be  used  in  sections — are  more  attractive  to  the  worker- 
bees.  I  find  that  a  few  sections  full  of  comb  in  the  section- 
case  very  greatly  aid  to  tempt  the  bees  to  work  in  the  sections. 
"We  often  may  gain  our  point  by  taking  a  case  of  sections,  bees 
and  all,  from  a  hive  whose  "bees  are  working  in  the  sections, 
and  giving  them  to  the  reluctant  colony.  Or  we  may  gain  the 
same  end  by  giving  the  bees  a  one-half  story  or  case  of 
extracting-combs.  The  bees  may  enter  these  at  once,  when 
we  may  raise  them  and  add  our  section-cases.  Later  these 
half-story  extracting-combs  may  be  used  elsewhere,  and  may 
serve  there  to  cut  short  unprofitable  loafing,  and  to  prevent 
swarming.'  I  also  have  used  the  invertible  frames  to  excellent 
purpose  in  obtaining  the  same  result.  I  invert  the  frames  and 
at  the  same  time  uncap  the  honey  in  them.  The  hives  mu:»t 
always  be  shaded  from  the  hot  sun.  With  experience  will 
come  the  skill  which  can  accomplish  this,  and  make  comb- 
honey  production  the  most  fascinating  feature  of  bee-keeping. 

REMOVAL  OF   SECTIONS. 

The  three-eighths  inch  space  between  the  upper  as  well  as 
the  lower  bars  of  the  sections  enables  us  to  see  quickly  the  con- 
dition of  each  section  just  by  removal  of  the  cover.  Each 
section  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  capped,  if  we  would  have 
it  very  nice.  Yet  it  is  certainly  true  that  the  rich,  delicate 
flavor  will  be  increased  if  left  on  the  hive  even  for  a  month  or 


340 


THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 


more.  This,  of  course,  can  not  be  done  unless  we  use  separa- 
tors. Any  delay  will  make  it  dark  and  hurt  its  sale.  During 
the  harvest  we  should  add  other  sections  to  take  the  place  of 
those  removed.  Towards  the  close  of  the  harvest  we  should 
not  add  other  sections,  for,  by  contracting  the  space,  the  last 
sections  will  be  more  surely  filled  and  quickly  capped.    To 

Fig.  159. 


The  Iteese  Cones.— From  A.  I.  Boot  Co. 


remove  the  bees  from   single  sections  taken   from  frame  or 
case,  we  have  only  to  brush  them  off. 

Few  bee-keepers  will  stop  to  remove  single  sections.  In 
fact,  the  tiering-up  process  is,  in  my  opinion,  the  key  to  the 
successful  production  of  comb  honey.  If  we  remove  a  full 
case  we  can  often  shake  a  large  portion  of  the  bees  from  the 
secdons,  then    by  piling  the  cases  in   a   box  overspread  by  a 


OR,   MANUAL  OF   THE   APIARY.  341 

sheet,  or  in  a  bee-tent,  or  even  in  the  honey-house,  the  bees 
will  all  leave  the  sections.  J.  S.  Reese,  of  Kentucky,  invented 
double  cones  of  wire-gauze,  one  smaller  than  and  within  the 
other,  to  remove  the  bees  from  sections.  These  are  fastened 
with  their  bases  (Fig-.  159)  just  over  an  inch  hole  in  a  board 
just  the  size  of  a  section-case.     When   it  is  desired  to  clear  a 

Fig.  160. 


Porter  Bee- Escajif.— From  A.  I.  Boot  Co. 

case  of  sections  of  bees,  the  case  is  raised  and  an  empty  case 
with  the  board  upon  it,  and  the  cones  projecting  downward,  is 
placed  beneath  (Fig.  159).  One  need  not  try  this  to  know  that 
it  would  be  practical. 

The  Porter  bee-escape  (Fig.  160)  is  much  superior  to  the 
cones.  It  lies  horizontal,  and  so  requires  no  more  space  than 
the  board  (Fig.  161)  which  contains  it. 

Fig.  161. 


Forlcr  Bee-Escape  in  IIonaj-Bo-trd.—From  A.  I.  Moot  Co. 

To  remove  the  sections  from  the  case,  we  invert  the  case 
and  set  it  on  a  shallow  box  just  the  size  of  the  case.  This  need 
not  be  more  than  two  inches  high.  We  now  lay  a  block,  which 
will  cover  a  row,  on  the  sections,  when,  by  a  smart  blow  from 
a  mallet,  a  whole  row  of  sections  is  loosened  at  once.  Even 
with  the  best  care  and  management  there  will  be  some  unfilled 
sections  at  the  close  of  the  season.  In  large  apiaries,  where 
there  are  thousands  of  these,  they  may  be  safely  placed  in 


342  THE  BEE-KKEPER'S  GUIDE  ', 

hives,  one  above  the  other,  and  fed  to  the  bees  right  in  the 
apiary.  This  will  never  do  except  on  a  very  large  scale,  as  it 
would  cause-robbing.  If  nearly  full  they  may  be  sold  in  the 
local  market.  They  may  be  extracted  and  the  sections  used  as 
decoys  the  next  year.  Occasionally  we  can  feed  extracted 
honey,  and  have  them  filled.  This  is  likely  to  cause  robbing 
unless  very  carefully  managed,  and  usually  fails  to  pay. 

Of  course,  all  sections  must  be  scraped,  as  any  stain  or 
show  of  propolis  makes  second-grade  honey.  Scraping  requires 
much  care,  or  the  honey  will  be  bruised,  which  would  make  a 
bad  matter  worse.  Special  boxes  of  convenient  height,  with 
shelves  at  ends  to  hold  sections  so  that  the  edge  of  section  may 
be  flush  with  edge  of  the  shelf,  are  used  to  advantage  in  clean- 
ing sections.  Some  have  used  machinery,  such  as  moving 
belts,  wheels,  or  moving  sandpaper,  to  accomplish  this  work. 
Most  use  the  common  case-knife,  and  usually,  especially  with 
the  small  bee-keeper,  that  is  the  best.  The  box,  however,  to 
catch  litter,  and  with  end  shelves  to  bear  the  sections,  first  sug- 
gested by  Mr.  Boomhower,  of  New  York,  is  a  valuable  feature. 

If  there  is  any  possible  danger  of  moths,  the  comb  honey 
should  be  fumigated  by  use  of  burning  sulphur  (see  Bee-Moth). 
Bisulphide  of  carbon  may  be  used  instead  of  sulphur.  It  is 
equally  good,  and  requires  less  labor.  As  this  last  is  thought 
to  kill  the  eggs,  it  is  much  to  be  preferred.  This  is  a  wise  pre- 
caution, even  though  the  bee-keeper  rarely  sees  one  of  these 
insects.  A  single  moth  can  stock  several  cases  of  sections 
with  the  fatal  eggs. 

R.  L/.  Taylor,  one  of  Michigan's  most  successful  bee- 
keepers, who  produces  large  harvests  of  comb  honey,  gives 
the  following  points  to  be  heeded  in  producing  comb  honey  : 

1.  Bees  must  winter  well. 

2.  There  must  be  a  goodly  amount  of  honey  in  the  hive  in 
the  spring.     Bees  never  prosper  on  scant  rations. 

3.  Keep  colonies  warm  in  spring. 

4.  Tier  up  and  leave  sections  on  the  hive  till  just  at  the 
close  of  the  season. 

5.  When  removed,  pile  the  cases  of  sections  one  upon 
another,  fumigate,  and  keep  in  a  warm  room  till  sold. 

The  above  are  points  well  worthy  consideration,  and  may 
be  called  the  axioms  of  comb-honey  production. 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF   THB   APIARY.  343 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

HANDLING   BEES. 

But  some  one  asks  the  question,  Shall  we  not  receive  those 
merciless  stings,  or  be  introduced  to  what  "  Josh  "  calls  the 
"business  end  of  the  bee  ?"  Perhaps  there  is  no  more  cause- 
less or  more  common  dread  in  existence  than  this  of  bees' 
stings.  When  bees  are  gathering,  they  will  never  sting  unless 
provoked.  When  at  the  hives — especially  if  Italians  or  Car- 
niolans — they  will  rarely  make  an  attack.  The  common 
belief,  too,  that  some  persons  are  more  liable  to  attack  than 
others,  is,  I  think,  erroneous.  With  the  best  opportunity  to 
judge,  with  our  hundreds  of  students,  I  think  I  may  safely  say 
that  one  is  almost  always  as  liable  to  attack  as  another,  except 
that  he  is  more  quiet,  or  does  not  greet  the  usually  amiable 
passer-by  with  those  terrific  thrusts,  which  would  vanquish 
even  a  practiced  pugilist.  Occasionally  a  person  tnay  have  a 
peculiar  odor  about  his  person  that  angers  bees  and  invites 
their  darting  tilts,  with  drawn  swords,  venom-tipped ;  yet, 
though  I  take  my  large  classes  each  season,  at  frequent  inter- 
vals, to  see  and  handle  the  bees,  each  for  himself,  I  still  await 
the  first  proof  of  the  fact  that  one  person  is  more  liable  to  be 
stung  than  another,  providing  each  carries  himself  with  that 
composed  and  dignified  bearing  that  is  so  pleasing  to  the  bees. 
True,  some  people,  filled  with  dread,  and  the  belief  that  bees 
regard  them  with  special  hate  and  malice,  are  so  ready  for  the 
battle  that  they  commence  the  strife  with  nervous  head-shakes 
and  beating  of  the  air,  and  thus  force  the  bees  to  battle, 
nolentes  volentes.  I  believe  that  only  such  are  regarded  with 
special  aversion  by  the  bees.  Hence,  I  believe  that  no  one 
need  be  stung. 

Bees  should  never  be  jarred,  nor  irritated  by  quick 
motions.  It  is  always  wise,  also,  to  stand  at  one  side  and 
never  in  front  of  the  hive.  Those  with  nervous  temperament — 
and  I  plead  very  guilty  on  this  point — need  not  give  up,  but  at 


344  THE  bee-kbepbr's  guide  ; 

first  better  protect  their  faces,  and,  perhaps,  even  their  hands, 
till  time  and  experience  show  them  that  fear  is  vain  ;  then 
they  will  divest  themselves  of  all  such  useless  encumbrances. 
Bees  are  more  cross  when  they  are  gathering  no  honey,  and  at 
such  times,  black  bees  and  hybrids  especially,  are  so  irritable 
that  even  the  experienced  apiarist  will  wish  a  veil.  Exposing 
honey  about  the  apiary  at  such  times  will  increase  quickly  this 
irritability.  There  are  some  bees  that  are  chronically  cross, 
and  are  ever  about  with  their  menacing  cry.  Doolittle  advises 
killing  these  at  once.  He  uses  a  small  paddle-like  board  for 
this  purpose.  I  have  never  minded  these  chronic  grumblers. 
They  usually  respect  indifference  ;  at  least  they  rarely  sting  me. 

THE  BEST  BEE  VEIL. 

This  should  be  made  of  black  tarlatan,  or,  better,  silk 
tulle,  sewed  up  like  a  bag,  a  half  yard  long,  without  top  or 
bottom,  and  with  a  diameter  of  the  rim  of  a  common  straw- 
hat.  Gather  the  top  with  braid,  so  that  it  will  just  slip  over 
the  crown  of  the  hat— else,  sew  it  to  the  edge  of  the  rim  of 
some  cheap,  cool  hat ;  in  fact,  I  prefer  this  style— and  gather 
the  bottom  with  rubber  cord  or  rubber  tape,  so  that  it  may  be 
drawn  over  the  hat  rim,  and  then  over  the  head,  as  we  adjust 
the  hat. 

Some  prefer  to  dispense  with  the  rubber  cord  at  the  bottom 
(Fig.  162),  and  have  the  veil  long  so  as  to  be  gathered  in  by 
the  coat  or  dress.  If  the  black  tarlatan  troubles  by  coloring 
the  shirt  or  collar,  or  if  the  silk  tulle  is  thought  too  expensive, 
the  lower  part  may  be  made  of  white  netting  ;  indeed,  all  may 
be  made  of  white  netting  except  a  small  square  to  be  worn 
just  in  front  of  the  eyes.  When  in  use,  the  rubber  cord  draws 
the  lower  part  close  about  the  neck,  or  the  lower  part  tucks 
within  the  coat  or  vest  (Fig.  162),  and  we  are  safe.  This  kind 
of  a  veil  is  cool,  does  not  impede  vision  at  all,  and  can  be  made 
by  any  woman  at  a  cost  of  less  than  20  cents.  Common  buck- 
skin or  sheepskin  gloves  can  be  used,  as  it  will  scarcely  pay  to 
get  special  gloves  for  the  purpose,  for  the  most  timid  person— 
I  speak  from  experience — will  soon  consider  gloves  as  unneces- 
sary and  awkward. 

Special  rubber  gloves  are  sold  by  those  who  keep  on  hand 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THB   APIARY.  345 

apiarian  supplies.  It  is  reported  that  heavily  starched  linen 
is  proof  against  the  bee's  sting-,  and  so  may  be  used  for  gloves 
or  other  clothing.  Some  apiarists  think  that  dark  clothing  is 
specially  obnoxious  to  bees.  It  is  certainly  true  that  fuzzy 
■woolen,  and  even  hairs  on  one's  hands,  are  very  irritating  to 
them.  Clothes  with  a  heavy  nap  should  be  rejected  by  the 
bee-keeper,  and  the  Esaus  should  singe  the  hair  from  their 
bands. 

For  ladies,    my  friend,   Mrs.  Baker,  recommends  a  dress 
which,  by  use  of  a   rubber  skirt-lift  or  other  device,  can  be 

Fig.  162. 


Bee-  Veil. — Origifuil. 

instantly  raised  or  lowered.  This  will  be  convenient  in  the 
apiary,  and  tidy  anywhere.  The  Gabrielle  style  is  preferred, 
and  of  a  length  just  to  reach  the  floor.  It  should  be  bolted  at 
the  waist,  and  cut  down  from  the  neck  in  front  one-third 
the  length  of  the  waist,  to  permit  the  tucking  in  of  the  veil. 
The  underwaist  should  fasten  close  about  the  neck.  The 
sleeves  should  be  quite  long  to  allow  free  use  of  the  arms,  and 
gathered  in  with  a  rubber  cord  at  the  wrist,  which  will  hug 
the  rubber  gauntlets  or  arm,  and  prevent  bees  from  crawling 
up  the  sleeves.  The  pantalets  should  be  straight  and  full,  and 
should  also  have  the  rubber  cord  in  the  hem  to  draw  them 
close  about  the  top  of  the  shoes. 


346  THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 

Mrs.  Baker  also  places  great  stress  on  the  wet  "  head-cap," 
which  she  believes  the  men  even  would  find  a  great  comfort. 
This  is  a  simple,  close-fitting  cap,  made  of  two  thicknesses  of 
coarse  toweling.  The  head  is  wet  with  cold  water,  and  the 
cap  wet  in  the  same,  wrung  out,  and  placed  on  the  head. 

Mrs.  Baker  would  have  the  dress  neat  and  clean,  and  so 
trimmed  that  the  lady  apiarist  would  ever  be  ready  to  greet 
her  brother  or  sister  apiarists.  In  such  a  dress  there  is  no 
danger  of  stings,  and  with  it  there  is  that  show  of  neatness 
and  taste,  without  which  no  pursuit  could  attract  the  attention, 
or  at  least  the  patronage,  of  our  refined  women. 

TO  QtriET  BEES. 

In  harvest  seasons  the  bees,  especially  if  Italians,  can 
almost  always  be  handled  without  their  showing  resentment. 
Our  college  bees — hybrids,  between  Syrians  and  Carniolans — 
are  so  gentle  that  I  go  freely  among  them  without  protection 
each  May  and  June,  with  my  large  classes.  At  first  each 
student  puts  on  the  veil,  but  soon  these  are  thrown  aside,  and 
it  is  rare  indeed  that  any  one  gets  a  sting.  Even  Mr.  Doolittle 
always  uses  a  veil  when  steadily  at  work  in  the  apiary.  But 
at  other  times,  and  whenever  they  object  to  necessary  famil- 
iarity, we  have  only  to  cause  them  to  fill  with  honey — very 
likely  it  is  the  scare  that  quiets  the  bees — to  render  them 
harmless,  unless  we  pinch  them.  This  can  be  done  by  closing 
the  hive  so  that  the  bees  can  not  get  out,  and  then  rapping  on 
the  hive  for  a  short  time.  Those  within  will  fill  with  honey, 
those  without  will  be  tamed  by  surprise,  and  all  will  be  quiet. 
Sprinkling  the  bees  with  sweetened  water  will  also  tend  to 
render  them  amiable,  and  will  make  them  more  ready  to  unite 
to  receive  a  queen,  and  less  apt  to  sting.  Still  another  method, 
more  convenient,  is  to  smoke  the  bees.  A  little  smoke  blown 
among  the  bees  will  scarcely  ever  fail  to  quiet  them,  though  I 
have  known  black  bees,  in  autumn,  to  be  very  slow  to  yield. 
It  is  always  wise  upon  opening  a  hive  to  blow  a  little  smoke  in 
at  the  entrance. 

The  Syrian  bees,  when  first  imported,  are  maddened  rather 
than  quieted  by  use  of  smoke.  I  find,  however,  that  with 
handling  they  soon  become  more  like  Italians.    Deliberation  is 


OR,    MANUAL  OF   THE   APIARY. 


347 


Specially  desirable  when  we  first  open  the  hive  of  Syrian  bees. 
Dry  cotton-cloth,  closely  wound  and  sewed  or  tied,  or, 
better,  pieces  of  dry,  rotten  wood  are  excellent  for  the  purpose 
of  smoking.  These  are  easily  handled,  and  will  burn  for  a 
long  time.     But  best  of  all  is  a 

BEI-LOWS   SMOKER. 

This  is  a  tin  tube  attached  to  a  bellows.  Cloth,  corn-cobs, 
damp  shavings,  or  rotten  wood  (that  which  has  been  attacked 
by  dry-rot  is  the  best)  can  be  burned  in  the  tube,  and  will 
remain  burning  a  long  time.    The  smoke  can  be  directed  at 

Fig.  164. 

Dlrect-Draft  Perfect 

BINGHAM 

Bee  Smoker 


Fig.  163. 


Quinby  Srnoker. 
-From  L.  C.  Boot. 


Bingham  Smoke)-. — From  T.  F.  Bingham. 

pleasure,  the  bellows  easily  worked,  and  the  smoker  used  with- 
out any  disagreeable  effects  or  danger  from  fire. 

THE  QUINBY  SMOKER. 

This  smoker  (Fig.  163)  was  a  gift  to  bee-keepers  by  the 
late  Mr.  Quinby,  and  was  not  patented.  Though  a  similar 
device  had  been  previously  used  in  Europe,  without  doubt  Mr. 
Quinby  was  not  aware  of  the  fact,  and  as  he  was  the  person  to 
bring  it  to  the  notice  of  bee-keepers,  and  to  make  it  so  perfect 


348  THE  bee-keeper's  guide  ; 

as  to  challenge  the  attention  and  win  the  favor  of  apiarists 
instanter,  he  is  certainly  worthy  of  great  praise,  and  deserving 
of  hearty  gratitude. 

Mr.  Bingham  was  the  first  to  improve  the  old  Quinby 
smoker  in  establishing  a  direct  draft  (Fig.  164).  L,ater  Mr. 
Bingham  added  a  wire  fire-guarij  to  the  chimney,  and  hinged 
the  latter  to  the  fire-tube.  Mr.  Clark  next  added  the  cold  draft 
(Fig.  165).  This  has  a  large  fire-chamber,  but  it  is  awkward 
in  form,  and  the  small  cold-air  tube  soon  chokes  with  soot. 

Fig.  165. 


Clark  Smoker.— From,  A,  /.  Root  Co. 

There  are  now  several  smokers  on  the  market,  each  of 
which  has  its  merits  and  its  friends.  I  have  tried  nearly  all, 
and,  in  my  opinion,  the  Bingham  is  incomparably  superior  to 
any  other.  I  should  have  it  at  double  or  triple  the  price  of  any 
other.  Still,  I  know  excellent  bee-keepers  who  prefer  the 
Clark.  No  person  who  keeps  even  a  single  colony  of  bees  can 
afford  to  do  without  some  one  of  them. 

TO  SMOKE  BEES. 
Approach  the  hive,  blow  a  little  smoke  in  at  the  entrance, 
then  open  from  above,  and  blow  in  smoke  as  required.  If,  at 
any  time,  the  bees  seem  irritable,  a  few  puffs  from  the  smoker 
will  subdue  them.  Thus,  any  person  may  handle  his  bees 
with  perfect   freedom   and  safety.     If,  at  any   time,  the  fire- 


OR,  MANUAI.   OF   THE   APIARY.  349 

chamber  and  escape-pipe  of  the  smoker  become  filled  with  soot, 
they  can  easily  be  cleaned  by  revolving  an  iron  or  hardwood 
stick  inside  of  them. 

CHLOROFORM. 

Mr.  Jones  finds  that  chloroform  is  very  useful  in  quieting- 
bees.  He  puts  a  dry  sponge  in  the  tube  of  the  smoker,  then  a 
sponge  wet  in  chloroform— it  takes  but  a  few  drops— then  puts 
in  another  dry  sponge.  These  dry  sponges  prevent  the  escape 
of  the  chloroform,  except  when  the  bellows  is  worked.  Mr. 
Jones  finds  that  bees  partially  stupefied  with  chloroform 
receive  queens  without  any  show  of  ill-will.  As  soon  as  the 
bees  begin  to  fall,  the  queen  is  put  into  the  hive,  and  no  more 
of  the  vapor  added.  I  tried  this  one  summer  with  perfect  suc- 
cess. This  was  recommended  years  ago  in  Germany,  but  its 
use  seems  to  have  been  abandoned.  It  is  more  than  likely  that 
Mr.  Jones'  method  of  applying  the  anaesthetic  is  what  makes 
it  more  valuable.  The  smoker  diffuses  the  vapor  so  that  all 
bees  receive  it,  and  none  get  too  much.  I  should  use  ether 
instead  of  chloroform,  as  with  higher  animals  it  is  a  little 
more  mild  and  safe.  Our  British  friends  of  late  are  recom- 
mending carbolic  acid  in  lieu  of  smoke  to  quiet  bees.  By 
means  of  a  feather  the  liquid  is  brushed  about  the  entrance 
and  along  the  top  of  the  frames,  or  else  a  cloth  dampened  with 
the  acid  is  placed  over  the  frames.  This  is  also  used  to  fumi- 
gate the  bees  for  the  same  purpose.  Mr,  Cheshire  advises  a 
little  creosote  placed  in  the  common  smoker,  to  make  the 
smoke  more  efi'ective.  There  is  no  question  but  that  this 
obnoxious  substance  will  quiet  the  bees  ;  but  it  seems  to  me, 
from  a  brief  experience,  that  it  is  far  less  convenient  than  the 
smoker.  With  fuller  experience  I  say  unhesitatingly  that  for 
convenience  and  effectiveness,  smoke  is  quite  superior  to  any 
of  these  substances. 

TO  CURE  STINGS. 

In  case  a  person  is  stung,  he  should  step  back  a  little  for  a 
moment,  as  the  pungent  odor  of  the  venom  is  likely  to  anger 
the  bees  and  induce  further  stinging.  By  forcing  a  little 
smoke  from  the  smoker  on  the  part  stung,  we  will  obscure 
this  odor.    The  sting  should  be  rubbed  off  at  once.     I  say 


350  THE  BBK-KEEPER'S  GUIDE  ; 

rubbed,  for  we  should  not  grasp  it  with  the  finger-nails,  as 
that  crowds  more  poison  into  the  wound.  If  the  pain  is  such 
as  to  prove  troublesome,  apply  a  little  ammonia.  The  venom  is 
an  acid,  and  is  neutralized  by  the  alkali.  A  strong  solution 
of  saltpeter  I  have  found  nearly  as  good  to  relieve  pain  as  the 
ammonia.  Ice-cold  water  drives  the  blood  from  any  part  of 
our  body  to  which  it  is  applied,  and  so  it  often  gives  relief  to 
quickly  immerse  the  part  stung  in  very  cold  water.  In  case 
horses  are  badly  stung,  as  sometimes  happens,  they  should  be 
taken  as  speedily  as  possible  into  a  barn  (a  man,  too,  may 
escape  angry  bees  by  entering  a  building),  where  the  bees  will 
seldom  follow,  then  wash  the  horses  in  soda  water,  and  cover 
with  blankets  wet  in  cold  water.  Cows  picketed  many  rods 
from  the  apiary,  in  the  line  of  flight  to  a  spring,  have  been 
stung  to  death.  Unlike  horses,  cows  will  not  run  off.  This 
fact  surely  suggests  caution. 

A  wash  or  lotion,  "  Apifuge,"  is  praised  in  England  as  a 
preventive  of  stings.  The  hands  and  face  are  simply  washed 
in  it.  I  have  tried  it,  but  could  see  no  advantage.  The  sub' 
stances  used  are  oil  of  wintergreen  or  methyl  salicylate. 

THE  SWEAT  THEORY. 

It  is  often  stated  that  sweaty  horses  and  people  are  obnox- 
ious to  the  bees,  and  hence  almost  sure  targets  for  their  barbed 
arrows.  In  warm  weather  I  perspire  most  profusely,  yet  am 
scarcely  ever  stung,  since  I  have  learned  to  control  my  nerves. 
I  once  kept  my  bees  in  the  front  yard— they  looked  beautiful 
on  the  green  lawn — within  two  rods  of  a  main  thoroughfare, 
and  not  infrequently  let  my  horse,  covered  with  sweat  upon 
my  return  from  a  drive,  crop  the  grass  while  cooling  off,  right 
in  the  same  yard.  Of  course,  there  was  some  danger,  though 
less  as  I  always  kept  careful  watch,  but  I  never  knew  my  horse 
to  get  stung.  Why,  then,  the  theory  ?  May  not  the  more 
frequent  stings  be  consequent  upon  the  warm,  nervous  condi- 
tion of  the  iYidividual  ?  The  man  is  more  ready  to  strike  and 
jerk,  the  horse  to  stamp  and  switch.  The  switching  of  the 
horse's  tail,  like  the  whisker  trap  of  a  full  beard,  will  anger 
even  a  good-natured  bee.  I  should  dread  the  motions  more 
than  the  sweat. 


OR^   MANUAI<  OF  THB   APIARY. 


351 


Often  when  there  is  no  honey  to  gather,  as  when  we  take 
the  last  honey  in  autumn,  or  prepare  the  bees  for  winter,  the 
bees  are  inordinately  cross.     This  is  especially  true  of  black 

Fig.  166. 


W'"ff\ 

ttttti 

i 

B-fi 

?i:::  | 

mm,:M\L 

1:^*  ■ 

:i::: 

j|;-H-; 

1  i""i 

5*1 

HI 

1%: 

■j|pim|fi  ijwa^.- 

^l:i 

1^14 

:::::t^ 

-  ■■itllttr^ 

TtX'HmMll  1  '   M  'Tk^I'IT! 

mUH  UtHI: 

::::;i' 

-■--■>   HI    i 

^^^^^^gi^^Mt±H3Fff 

::::J|  J 

^^S 

-iH 

^^^^S 

^^m 

i|«^a*s3p5| 

E-3I 

^:::^ 

..:::::  ; 

1^^ 

^ffit 

^^B 

Bee-  Tent. — Original, 

bees  and  hybrids.    At  such  times  I  have  found   an  invaluable 
aid  in 

THE  BEB-TKNT. 
This  also  keeps  all  robbers  from  mischief.  It  is  simply  a 
tent  which  entirely  covers  the  hives,  bees,  bee-keeper  and  all. 
The  one  I  use  (Fig-.  166)  is  light,  large,  and  easily  moved,  or 
folded  up  if  we  wish  to  put  it  in  the  house.  The  sides  are 
rectangulur  frames  made  of  light  pine  strips,  well  braced  (Fig. 
166,  b,  b),  and  covered  with   wire-cloth.     The  top  and  ends  are 


352  THE  bee-kekpkr's  guide; 

covered  with  factory-cloth,  firmly  tacked  except  at  one  end, 
where  it  is  fastened,  at  will,  by  rings  which  hook  over  screws. 
The  two  sides  have  no  permanent  connection  of  wood,  except 
at  the  ends  (Fig.  166,  c,  c).  The  small  strips  which  connect  at 
these  places  are  double,  and  hinged  to  the  side  frames,  and  the 
two  parts  of  each  hinged  together.  Thus  these  may  drop,  and 
so  permit  the  side  frames  to  come  close  together  where  we 
wish  to  "  fold  our  tent."  The  sides  are  kept  apart  by  center 
cross-strips  at  the  ends  (Fig.  166,  a,  a),  from  which  braces  (Fig. 
166,  z,  i)  extend  to  the  double  cross-strips  above.  These  center 
strips,  with  their  braces  hinged  to  them,  are  separate  from  the 
rest  of  the  frame,  except  wnen  hooked  on  as  we  spread  the 
tent.  I  have  since  made  a  similar  tent,  and  for  end-pieces 
used  simply  four  round  sticks,  the  ends  of  which  fitted  very 
closely  into  holes  bored  into  the  uprights  of  the  side  frames, 
one  into  the  top  and  one  into  the  middle  of  each.  These  end- 
pieces  are  as  long  as  can  be  crowded  in.  This  is  very  simple 
and  excellent. 

After  use  of  this  tent  several  years,  I  can  not  praise  it  too 
highly.  It  is  also  admirable  in  aiding  to  get  bees  out  of  sec- 
tions—in which  case  cones,  like  the  Reese  cones  (Fig.  159),  will 
permit  the  bees  to  escape,  and  to  use  at  fairs,  when  bees  can 
be  manipulated  in  the  tent.  I  have  so  used  it.  The  tent 
should  always  be  used,  if  we  must  handle  bees  when  no  gath- 
ering is  being  done.  There  no  robbing  will  be  caused.  I  have 
already  referred  to  a  cheap  tent  made  by  A.  I.  Root  (Fig.  158). 
That,  however,  is  not  as  convenient  as  this  one. 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF  THB  APIARY. 


353 


CHAPTER  XV. 

COMB  FOUNDATION. 

Every  apiarist  of  experience  knows  that  empty  combs  in 
frames,  comb-guides  in  the  sections,  to  tempt  the  bees  and  to 
insure  the  proper  position  of  the  full  combs,  in  fact,  combs  of 
almost  any  kind  or  shape,  are  of  great  importance.  So  every 
skillful  apiarist  is  very  careful  to  save  all  drone-comb  that  is 
cut  out  of  the  brood-chamber— where  it  is  worse  than  useless, 
as  it  brings  with  it  myriads  of  those  useless  gourmands,  the 
dronps— to  kill  the  eggs,  remove  the  brood,  or  extract  the 
honey,  and  transfer  it  to  the  sections.  He  is  equally  careful 
to  keep  all  his  worker-comb,  so  long  as  the  cells  are  of  proper 
size  to  domicile  full-sized  larvae,  and  never  to  sell  any  comb, 
or  even  comb  honey,  unless  a  greater  price  makes  it  desirable. 

Fig.  167. 


K^ 

Yr 

CTX 

^^ 

^H 

Sx^M 

w^ 

r1> 

i$= 

^^^^^ 

Comb  Foundation. — From  A  merican  Bee  Journal. 

No  wonder,  then,  if  comb  is  so  desirable,  that  German 
thought  and  Yankee  ingenuity  have  devised  means  of  giving 
the  bees  at  least  a  start  in  this  important  yet  expensive  work 
of  comb-building,  and  hence  the  origin  of  another  great  aid  to 
the  apiarist — comb  foundation  (Fig,  167). 
HISTORY. 

For  more  than  forty  years  the  Germans  have  used  im- 
pressed sheets  of  wax  as  a  foundation  for  comb,  as  it  was  first 
made  by  Herr  Mehring,  in   1857.    These  sheets  are  several 


354  THB  BKE-KBEPBR'S  GUIDB  ; 

times  as  thick  as  the  partition  at  the  center  of  natural  comb. 
This  is  pressed  between  metal  plates  so  accurately  formed  that 
the  wax  receives  rhomboidal  impressions  which  are  ^fac  simile 
of  the  basal  wall  or  partition  between  the  opposite  cells  of 
natural  comb.  The  thickness  of  this  sheet  is  an  objection,  as 
it  is  found  that  the  bees  do  not  thin  it  down  to  the  natural 
thickness,  though  they  may  thin  it  much,  and  they  use  the 
shavings  to  form  the  walls.  Prof.  C.  P.  Gillette  (Bulletin  54, 
Colorado  Experiment  Station),  by  mixing  lampblack  with  wax, 
proved  what  we  have  long  known,  that  bees  extend  the  midrib 
and  foundation  to  complete  the  cells.  As  we  have  seen,  the 
bees  form  comb  in  the  same  way,  when  they  make  their  own 
foundation. 

AMERICAN    FOUNDATION. 

Mr.  Wagner  secured  a  patent  on  foundation  in  1861,  but  as 
the  article  was  already  in  use  in  Germany,  the  patent  was,  as 
we  understand,  of  no  legal  value,  and,  certainly,  as  it  did  noth- 
ing to  bring  this  desirable  article  into  use,  it  had  no  virtual 
value.  Mr.  Wagner  was  also  the  first  to  suggest  the  idea  of 
rollers.  In  Langstroth's  work,  edition  of  1859,  page  373,  occurs 
the  following  in  reference  to  printing  or  stamping  combs : 
"Mr.  Wagner  suggests  forming  these  outlines  with  a  simple 
instrument  somewhat  like  a  wheel  cake-cutter.  When  a  large 
number  are  to  be  made,  a  machine  might  easily  be  constructed 
which  would  stamp  them  with  great  rapidity."  In  1866,  the 
King  Brothers,  of  New  York,  in  accordance  with  the  above 
suggestion,  made  the  first  machine  with  rollers,  ihe product  of 
which  they  tried  to  get  patented,  but  failed.  These  stamped 
rollers  were  less  than  two  inches  long.  This  machine  was 
useless,  and  failed  to  bring  foundation  into  general  use. 

In  1874,  Mr.  Frederick  Weiss,  a  poor  German,  invented  the 
machine  which  brought  the  foundation  into  general  use.  This 
was  the  machine  on  which  was  made  the  beautiful  and  practi- 
cal foundation  sent  out  by  "  John  Long,"  in  1874  and  1875,  and 
which  proved  to  the  American  apiarists  that  foundation 
machines,  and  foundation,  were  to  be  a  success. 

In  1876,  A.  I.  Root  commenced  in  his  energetic,  enthusi- 
astic way,  and  soon  brought  the  roller  machine  (Fig.  168)  and 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY. 


3SS 


foundation  into  general  use.  These  machines,  though  a  great 
aid  to  apiculture,  were  still  imperfect,  and  though  sold  at  an 
extravagantly  high  price— through  no  fault  of  Mr.  Root,  as  he 
informs  me— were  in  great  demand.  Next,  Mrs.  F.  Dunham 
greatly  improved  the  machine  by  so  making  the  rolls  that  the 
foundation  would  have  a  very  thin  base  and  high,  thick  walls, 
which,  in  the  manufacture,  were  not  greatly  pressed.  These 
three  points  are  very  desirable  in  all  foundation— thin  base 
and  thick,  high  walls,  which  shall  not  be  compactly  pressed. 
Fig.  168. 


Jioller  Comb  Foundation  Machine. — From  American  Bee  Journal. 


Mr.  Chas.  Ohlm  invented  a  machine  for  cutting  the  plates, 
which  greatly  cheapened  the  machines.  This  was  purchased 
by  Mr.  Root,  and  he  says  that  ninety  percent  of  the  foundation 
made  in  the  United  States  has  been  made  on  machines,  the 
rollers  of  which  were  embossed  by  this  Ohlm  machine. 

Mrs.  Dunham   is   not  only   entitled  to  gratitude  for  the 
superior  excellence  of  the  machines  she  manufactured,  but  by 


356  THE   BEE-KEEPER'S   GUIDE; 

putting  so  excellent  a  machine  on  the  market  at  a  lower  price, 
all  roller  machines  had  to  be  sold  more  reasonably'.  Mr.  Van- 
dervort  also  improved  the  rollers,  so  that  his  machine  secures 
the  same  results  as  does  Mrs.  Dunham's,  while  the  form  of  the 
foundation  is  somewhat  more  natural,  though  not  preferred  by 
the  bees,  I  think.  Another  form  of  foundation — that  with  flat 
bottom — is  made  by  the  Van  Deusen   mill.    This  has  a  very 

Fig.  169. 


G'lren  Press. — From  American  Bee  Journil. 

thin  base,  and  Is  very  handsome.  It  was  made  to  use  with 
wires.  This  can  be  made  very  thin,  and  many  beekeepers 
praise  it  very  highly.  Mr.  P.  H.  Elwood,  I  think,  still  prefers 
it  for  use  in  sections.  Mr.  Root  has  kept  his  machine  abreast 
with  the  latest  improvements.  Mr.  A.  B.  Weed  has  shown 
great  inventive  genius  in  manufacturing  very  complete  comb 
with  natural  base  and  cells  nearly  complete,  so  that  it  is  very 
like  natural  comb.  The  bees,  however,  seem  to  prefer  that 
with  less  length  of  cell,  and  the  greater  cost  and  more  diflScult 
transportation   makes  its  use  undesirable.     At  least,  it  has 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY.  357 

made  no  hit  in  practical  bee-keeping.     Mr.  Weed  uses  types 
for  the  cells,  and  so  the  cells  must  be  exactly  alike. 

THB   PRESS   FOR    FOUNDATION. 

Mr.  D.  A.  Given,  of  Illinois,  has  made  a  press  (Fig-.  169) 
that  stamps  the  sheets  by  plates  and  not  by  rolls,  which,  for  a 
time  gave  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  good  satisfaction  as  the 
improved  roller  machines.  This  shuts  up  like  a  book,  and  the 
wax  sheets,  instead  of  passing  between  curved  metal  rollers, 
are  stamped  by  a  press  after  being  placed  in  position.  The 
advantages  of  this  press,  as  claimed  by  its  friends,  are  that 
the  foundation  has  the  requisites  already  referred  to,  par 
excellence,  that  it  is  easily  and  rapidly  worked,  and  that 
foundation  can  at  once  be  pressed  into  the  wired  frames. 
Rubber  plates  have  also  been  made,  but  as  yet  have  not  won 
general  favor  or  acceptance.  Plaster  of  Paris  molds  made 
directly  from  the  foundation  are  made  and  used  satisfactorily 
by  some  excellent  bee-keepers.  At  present  I  think  the  press  is 
little  used.  The  roller  machine  seems  to  have  quite  displaced 
it.  Mr.  Root  says  this  is  because  it  is  slow.  Yet  he  thinks 
the  press  gives  the  most  perfect  foundation.  All  of  the  im- 
proved machines  give  us  foundation  of  exquisite  mold,  and, 
with  such  rapidity  that  it  can  be  made  cheap  and  practical. 
As  Mr.  Heddon  says,  the  bees  in  two  days,  with  foundation, 
will  do  more  than  they  would  in  eight  days  without  it.  Every 
one  who  wishes  the  best  success  must  use  foundation,  often  in 
the  brood-chamber,  and  always  in  the  sections,  unless  nice 
white  comb  is  at  hand.  Whoever  has  100  colonies  of  bees  may 
well  own  a  machine  for  himself,  though  it  usually  pays  better 
to  purchase.  The  specialist  can  make  nicer  foundation  than 
the  mere  amateur. 

HOW   FOUNDATION   IS   MADE. 

The  process  of  making  the  foundation  is  very  simple. 
Thin  sheets  of  wax,  of  the  desired  thickness,  are  pressed 
between  the  plates  or  passed  between  the  rolls,  which  are  made 
so  as  to  stamp  either  drone  or  worker  foundation,  as  desired. 
Worker  is  best,  I  think,  even  for  sections.  The  only  difficulty 
in  the  way  of  very  rapid  work  is  that  from  sticking  of  the 
wax  sheets  to  the  dies.    Mr.  Heddon  finds  that  by  wetting  the 


3S8  THB  bke-keepbr's  guide; 

dies  •with  concentrated  lye  the  wax  is  not  injured,  and  sticking 
is  prevented.  Mr.  Jones  uses  soapsuds  with  excellent  success 
for  the  same  purpose.  Think  of  two  men  running  through 
fifty  pounds  of  foundation  in  an  hour  I  That  is  what  I  saw 
two  men  do  at  Mi'.  Jones',  with  a  Dunham  machine,  by  use  of 
soapsuds.  The  man  who  put  in  the  wax  sheets  was  not 
delayed  at  all.  The  kind  of  soap  should  be  selected  with  care. 
Mr.  Root  prefers  common  starch  to  either  lye  or  soapsuds. 
New  machines  are  more  liable  to  trouble  with  sticking  than 
are  those  that  have  been  used  for  some  time.  It  is  said  that 
dipping  the  sheets  '.n  salt  brine  also  prevents  this  troublesome 
sticking.  Mr.  Baldridge  gives  this  hint,  but  conceals  the 
name  of  the  discoverer.  Mr.  Weed  now  secures  the  wax  in, 
continuous  sheets,  wound  on  a  spool,  and  these  are  fed  con 
tinuously.  So  the  old,  sticking  trouble  is  done  away  with. 
Mr.  Root  says  three-fourths  of  our  foundation  and  one-half  of 
that  of  the  world  is  now  made  by  this  new  Weed  process. 

TO  SECURE  THE  WAX  SHEETS. 

The  wax  should  be  melted  in  a  double-walled  tin  vessel, 
with  water  between  the  walls,  so  that  in  no  case  would  it  be 
burned  or  overheated. 

To  form  the  sheets,  a  dipping-board  of  the  width  and 
length  of  the  desired  shepts  is  the  best.  It  should  be  made  of 
pine,  and  should  be  true  and  very  smooth.  This  is  first  dipped 
into  cold  water — salt  in  the  water  makes  it  easier  to  remove 
the  sheets— then  one  end  is  dipped  quickly  into  the  melted 
wax,  then  raised  till  dripping  ceases — only  a  second — this  end 
dipped  into  the  cold  water,  grasped  by  means  of  a  dextrous 
toss  with  the  hands,  and  the  other  end  treated  the  same  way. 
The  thing  is  repeated,  if  necessary,  till  the  sheet  is  thick 
enough.  Twice  dipping  is  enough  for  brood-combs,  once  for 
sections.  We  now  only  have  to  shave  the  edges  with  a  sharp 
knife,  and  we  can  peel  off  two  fine  sheets  of  wax.  As  the  Weed 
machine  forms  continuous  sheets  which  can  be  readily  fed 
into  a  roller  machine,  and  the  sheets  of  foundation  accurately 
cut  and  all  perfect  and  automatic,  of  course,  the  dipping  of 
wax  sheets  will  soon  be  entirely  a  thing  of  the  past. 

For  cutting  foundation   nothing  is  so  admirable  as  the 


OR,   MANOAI.  OF  THB  APIARY. 


359 


Carlin  cutter  (Fig-.  170,  a),  which  is  like  the  wheel  glass-cutters 
sold  in  the  shops,  except  that  a  larger  wheel  of  tin  takes  the 
place  of  the  one  of  hardened  steel.  Mr.  A.  I.  Root  has  sug- 
gested a  grooved  board  (Fig.  170,  d)  to  go  with  the  above,  the 
distance  between  the  grooves  being  equal  to  the  desired  width 
of  the  strips  of  comb  foundation  to  be  cut. 

For  cutting  smaller  sheets  for  the  sections  the  same  device 

Fig,  170. 


From  A.  I.  Hoot  Co. 


may  be  used.  I  saw  Mr.  Jones  cut  these  as  fast  as  a  boy  would 
cut  circular  wads  for  his  shot-gun,  by  use  of  a  sort  of  modified 
cake-cutter  {Fig.  171). 

USE  OF   FOUNnATIOX. 

Unless  to  force  the  bees  into  sections,  when,  as  we  have 
seen,  it  is  better  to  hive  swarms  on  empty  frames,  with  mere 
starters,  we  better  always  use  foundation  in  brood-frames.  It 
is  astonishing  to  see  how  rapidly  the  bees  will  extend  the  cells, 
and  how  readily  the  queen  will  stock  them  wilh  eggs.  TAe 
foundation  should  always  be  the  right  size  for  worker-comb. 
Even  for  surplus  comb  honey  the  small  cells  are  best.  The 
honey  evaporates  more  quickly,  and  so  will  be  sooner  capped, 
and  it  looks  better.  For  brood-combs  I  prefer  wired  frames. 
The  sheet  of  foundation  should  not  quite  fill  the  frame.  The 
advantage  of  foundation  is,  first,  to  insure   worker-comb,  and 


360  THE  BEE-KEEPER  S  GUIDE; 

thus  worker-brood ;  and,  second,  to  furnish  straight,  nice 
combs.  We  have  proved  in  our  apiary  repeatedly,  that  by  use 
of  foundation  and  a  little  care  in  pruning  out  the  drone-comb, 
we  could  limit  or  even  exclude  drones  from  our  hives,  and  we 
have  but  to  examine  the  capacious  and  constantly  crowded 
stomachs  of  these  idlers  to  appreciate  the  advantage  of  such  a 
course.  Bees  may  occasionally  tear  down  worker-cells,  and 
build  drone-cells  in  their  place  ;  but  such  action,  I  believe,  is 
not  sufficiently  extensive  ever  to  cause  anxiety.  I  am  also 
certain  that  bees  that  have  to  secrete  wax  to  form  comb  do  less 
gathering.  Wax- secretion  seems  voluntary,  and  when  rapid 
seems  to  require  quiet  and  great  consumption  of  food.  As 
before  suggested,  may  this  not  be  due  to  greater  or  less  activity 
of  the  bees  ?  If  we  make  two  artificial  colonies  equally 
strong,  supply  the  one  with  combs,  and  withhold  them  from 
the  other,  we  will  find  that  this  last  sends  less  bees  to  the 
fields,  while  all  the  bees  are  more  or  less  engaged  in  wax- 
secretion.  Thus,  the  other  colony  gains  much  more  rapidly  in 
honey;  first,  because  more  bees  are  storing;  second,  because 
less  food  is  consumed.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  reason  why 
extracted  honey  can  be  secured  in  greater  abundance  than  can 
comb  honey. 

It  also  pays  remarkably  well  to  use  foundation  in  the 
sections.  If  we  use  very  thin  foundation — eleven  or  twelve 
feet  to  the  pound — all  talk  about  "the  fish-bone  "  need  not 
frighten  any  one.  Foundation  for  the  sections  should  be 
twelve  or  thirteen  feet  to  the  pound,  while  that  for  the  brood- 
chamber  is  better  at  seven  or  eight  feet.  Prof.  Gillette's 
experiments  and  measurements  show  that  the  thickness  of 
midrib  of  natural  comb  varies  from  .003  to  .006  of  an  inch  in 
worker,  and  from  .0048  to  .008  in  drone,  and  is  thickest  towards 
the  top.  The  cell-walls  were  found  as  thin  where  foundation 
was  used  as  were  the  natural  walls.  The  walls  vary  in  thick- 
ness from  .0018  to  .0028  of  an  inch.  Bees  always  thin  the  base 
If  thicker  than  natural,  but  never  thin  it  to  equal  the  natural 
base.  Prof.  Gillette  found  drone-comb  weighed  4.32  feet  to 
the  pound,  worker  5.40,  and  that  from  thin  foundation  4.23. 
As  comb  honey  is  generally  in  drone  or  store  comb,  we  see  we  get 
but  little  more  in  wax  honey  from  thin  foundation.    The  foun- 


OR,    MANUAL   OF   THE    APIARY. 


361 


dation  may  or  may  not  fill  these  sections.  It  is  recommended 
by  Dr.  Miller  and  our  Canadian  friends,  to  put  two  pieces  of 
foundation  in  each  section — an  inch  strip  from  the  bottom, 
and  a  piece  from  the  top  to  reach  within  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
of  the  lower  strip.  Of  course,  this  takes  time  and  care.  "When 
only  one  piece  is  used,  I  have  had  best  success  leaving  one- 
eighth  inch  space  on  sides  and  bottom.  Many  prefer  to  fasten 
to  both  top  and  bottom.  Of  course,  foundation  for  the  sec- 
tions— in  fact,  all  foundation — should  be  made  only  of  nicest, 
cleanest  wax.  Only  pure,  clean,  unbleached  wax  should  be  used 
in  making  foundation.  We  should  be  very  careful  not  to  put 
on  the  market  any  comb  honey  where   the   foundation  has  not 

Fig.  172. 


Parker  Foundation  Fastener.— From  American  Bee  Journal. 


been  properly  thinned  by  the  bees.  If  we  always  use  thin 
foundation  there  will  be  no  trouble. 

Foundation  can  be  fastened  into  the  sections  by  means  of 
melted  wax.  This  method,  however,  is  too  slow  ;  though  my 
friend,  R.  L,.  Taylor,  has  an  ingenious  arrangement  whereby 
he  melts  the  edges  of  the  foundation  and  fastens  it  in  the 
sections  with  great  accuracy  and  rapidity. 

The  Parker  foundation  fastener  (Fig.  172)  for  pressing 
starters  or  full  sheets  of  foundation  into  sections,  is  prized 
very  highly  by  most  who  have  used  it.  The  figure  shows  how 
it  is  used. 


362 


THE  bee-keeper's  guxde  ; 


The  Daisy  fastener  (Fig^.  173)  uses  heat  from  a  lamp,  and 
so  fixes  by  melting  rather  than  pressure.  It  is  preferred,  as  it 
is  quicker,  neater,  and  saves  wax.  In  the  Parker  the  pressed 
portion  is  of  course  lost. 

Still  other  machines  for  the  same  purpose  are  in  the  mar- 
ket. Our  British  friends  recommend  grooving;  the  sections  on 
all  sides  in  the  center  to  receive  the  foundation,  as  we  often 
groove  the  top.    They  also  recommend  splitting  the  top  in 

Fig.  173. 


DaUy  FouHihitiun  Fnstener. — From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 


the  middle  and  in  placing  together,  after  adjusting  one-half, 
add  the  foundation,  and  then  crowd  down  the  other  side,  thus 
holding  the  foundation  in  place.  These  methods  may  be 
^easily  tried. 

Foundation  can  be  fastened  in  the  brood-frames  rapidly 
and  very  securely  by  simply  pressing  it  against  the  rectan- 
gular projection  from  the  top-bar  already  described.  This  may 
be  done  by  use  of  a  case-knife,  dipped  in  honey  to  prevent  its 
sticking.  In  this  case  a  block  (Fig.  174,  a)  should  reach  up 
into  the  frame  from  the  side  which  is  nearest  to  the  rectan- 
gular projection— it  will  be  remembered  that  the  projection  is 


OR,  MANUAI.  OF  THB  APIARY. 


363 


a  little  to  one  side  of  the  center  of  the  top-bar,  so  that  the 
foundation  shall  hang  exactly  in  the  center — so  far  that 
its  upper  surface  would  be  exactly  level  with  the  upper 
surface  of  the  rectangular  projection.  This  block  has  shoul- 
ders (Fig.  174,  c),  so  that  it  will  always  reach  just  the  proper 
distance  into  the  frame.  It  is  also  rabbeted  at  the  edge  where 
the  projection  of  the  top-bar  of  the  frame  will  rest  (Fig.  174,  b), 
so  that  the  projection  has  a  solid  support,  and  will  not  split  oflf 
with  pressure.  We  now  set  the  frame  on  this  block,  lay  on 
the  foundation,  cut  the  size  we  desire,  which  will  be  as  long 
as  the  frame,  and  nearly  as  wide.  The  foundation  will  rest 
firmly  on  the  projection  and  block,  and  touch  the  top-bar  at 
every  point.     We  now  take  a  board  as  thick  as  the  projection 

Fig.  174. 


Fig.  175. 


is  deep,  and  as  wide  (Fig.  175,  d)  as  the  frame  is  long,  which 
may  be  trimmed  off,  so  as  to  have  a  convenient  handle  (Fig. 
175,  ,f),  and  by  wetting  the  edge  of  this  (Fig.  175,  rf)  either  in 
water,  or  better,  starch-water,  and  pressing  with  it  on  the 
foundation  above  the  projection,  the  foundation  will  be  made 
to  adhere  firmly  to  the  latter,  when  the  frame  may  be  raised 
with-  the  block,  taken  off,  and  another  fastened  as  before.  I 
have  practiced  this  plan  for  years,  and  have  had  admirable 
success.  I  have  very  rarely  known  the  foundation  to  drop  if 
made  of  good  wax,  though  it  must  be  remembered  that  our 
hives  are  shaded,  and  our  frames  small.    If  the  top-bar  of 


364 


THE  bee-kebpbr's  guide; 


the  frame  has  not  the  projection,  the  comb  can  be  pressed 
directly  on  the  top-bar  and  then  bent  at  right  angles,  as  with 
the  Parker  foundation  fastener.  To  make  this  more  secure 
a  narrow  strip  may  be  tacked  to  the  top-bar,  pressing  the 
foundation.  Our  English  friends  use  a  double  top-bar  which 
is  dovetailed  to  the  uprights  of  the  frame.  Thus,  in  putting 
together  the  frame  the  foundation  is  pressed  between  the  two 

Fig.  176. 


From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 

halves  of  the  top-bar,  and  so  firmly  held  in  place.  Sometimes 
a  groove  is  cut  into  the  top-bar,  which  may  receive  the  edge  of 
the  foundation,  which  is  held  by  a  wedge  (Fig.  176),  which  is 
pressed  in  beside  it. 

The  above  methods  are  successful,  but  probably  will 
receive  valuable  modifications  at  the  hands  of  the  ingenious 
apiarists  of  our  land.  If  we  have  frames  with  the  V-shaped 
top-bar  (Fig.  96),  we  may  easily  break  the  foundation  and 
press  it  on,  as  shown  in  Fig.  177. 


WIRED  FRAMES. 

But  as  foundation  does  sometimes  fall  or  sag,  so  that 
many  cells  are  changed  to  drone-cells,  or  warp  in  awkward 
shapes,  especially  if  the  hive  is  unshaded,  or  receives  a  full 
colony  of  bees  with  all  its  frames  full  of  foundation,  and  as 
the  wax  is  sometimes  so  brittle  that  it  will  not  hold  together, 


OR,  MANUAL  OF   THE  APIARY. 


365 


however  well  fastened,  wired  frames  (Figs.  178  and  70)  are 
rapidly  coming  into  use.  Another  point  strongly  in  favor  of 
such  frames  is  that  they  can  be  handled  or  shipped,  and  there 
is  not  the  least  danger  of  their  combs  falling  from  the  frames. 
Mr.  Jones  states  that  with  wired  frames  we  may  use  thinner 

Fig.  177. 


From  American  Bee  Journal. 

foundation,  and  thus  save  one-third  the  expense.  The  wires 
should  be  two  inches  apart,  and  the  extreme  wires  not  more 
than  one-half  inch  from  the  side  of  the  frame.  They  may  be 
fastened  by  passing  through  holes  in  the  top  and  bottom  bars 
of  the  frames,  which  must  be  exactly  in  the  center,  or  they 
may  be  hooked  over  little  hooks,  such  as  may  be  made  by  driv- 

FiG.  178. 


BooVs  Wired  Frame.     End-wires  are  too  far  from  End-bars. 
— From  A.  I.  Boot  Co. 


ing  a  staple  into  the  frame  after  we  have  cut  one  limb  of 
the  staple  oflF  near  the  curve.  If  holes  are  not  made  through 
the  top-bar  of  the  frame,  they  can  be  easily  formed  by  use  of 
sharp  awls.  If  these  are  set  in  a  strong  block,  like  an  iron 
rake,  each  bar  can  be  pierced  at  one  stroke  by  use  of  a  lever 
press.  If  the  foundation  is  to  be  stamped  in  the  frame  by  the 
Given  press,  then  the  wire  should  be  No.  36  ;  if  it  is  to  be  put 


366  THE  bee-kbeper's  guide; 

on  by  hand,  then  No.  30  must  be  used.  Tinned  wire  should  be 
used.  To  cut  wire  the  right  length  for  frames  and  not  have  it 
tangle,  it  may  be  wound  lengthwise  about  a  board  of  the  right 
length,  so  that  one  round  of  wire  will  be  just  enough  for  a 
frame.  Then  tie  two  or  three  strings  tightly  around  board, 
wire  and  all.  The  strings  extend  at  right  angles  to  the  wire. 
We  now  cut  across  all  the  wires  atone  end  of  the  board.  Thus, 
the  wires  are  all  the  proper  length,  and  are  held  firmly  ready 
for  use.  Some,  even  with  the  Given  press,  prefer  to  put  the 
foundation  on  the  wires  by  hand.  In  this  case  the  foundation 
should  be  warmed  till  quite  soft,  then  laid  on  a  board  and  the 
frame  placed  over  all  so  that  the  wires  rest  on  the  foundation. 
Then  by  use  of  a  shoe-buttoner,  with  a  longitudinal  groove  cut 
into  the  convex  side  of  the  curve,  the  wires  are  pressed  into  the 
foundation.     This  work  is  easily  and  rapidly  performed.    A  tin 

Fig.  179. 


Wire-Imbedder. — From  A.  I.  Hoot  Co. 

wire-imbedder  (Fig.  179)  works  admirably  and  costs  very  little. 
Mr.  Cheshire  states  that  the  brood  dies  over  the  wires.  There  is 
no  such  trouble  in  my  apiary.  In  Germany  it  is  recommended 
to  press  the  foundation  for  extracting-combs  on  a  board,  and 
so  have  the  cells  built  out  only  on  one  side  and  elongated  so 
as  to  hold  much  honey.  This  gives  strong  combs  and  saves 
turning  the  frames  when  extracting.  But  wired  combs  are 
strong,  and  our  improved  extractors  make  turning  very  easy 
and  rapid.  Again,  evaporation  or  ripening  in  deep  cells  is 
very  slow.  I  have  also  found  that  bees  object  to  foundation 
on  a  board,  and  often  bite  it  off. 


OR,    MAXUAX  OF   THE   APIARV. 


367 


SAVE  THE  WAX. 

As  foundation  is  becomiugp  so  popular,  it  behooves  us  all 
to  be  very  careful  that  no  old  comb  goes  to  waste.  Even  now 
the  supply  of  wax  in  the  country  is  scarce  equal  to  the  demand. 
Soiled  drone-comb,  old,  worthless  worker-comb,  all  the  comb 
in  the  old  hives,  if  we   use  Mr.  Heddon's   method  of  transfer- 

FiG.  180. 


Swiss  Wax-Extractor.— From  Americati  B*e  Journal. 

ring,  and  all  fragments  that  can  not  be  used  in  the  hives, 
together  with  cappings,  after  the  honey  is  drained  out,  should 
be  melted,  cleansed  and  molded  into  cakes  of  wax,  soon  to  be 
again  stamped,  not  by  the  bees,  but  by  wondrous  art. 


A  slow  and  primitive  method  is  to  melt  in  a  vessel  of 
heated  water,  and  to  purify  by  turning  oflf  the  top,  or  allowing 
it  to  cool,  when  the  impurities  at  the  bottom  are  scraped  off, 
and  the  process  repeated  till  all  impurities  are  eliminated. 

A  better  method  to  separate  the  wax  is  to  put  it  into  a 
strong,  rather  coarse  bag,  then  sink  this  in  water  and  boil. 
At  intervals  the  comb  in  the  bag  should  be  pressed  and  stirred. 
The  wax  will  collect  on  top  of  the  water. 

To  prevent  the  wax  from  burning,  the  bag  should  be  kept 
from  touching  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  by  inverting  a  basin 
in  the  bottom  of  the  latter,  or  else  by  using  a  double-walled 
vessel  with  hot  water  between  the  walls.  The  process  should 
be  repeated  till  the  wax  is  perfectly  cleansed. 


368  THH  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 

But  as  wax  is  to  become  so  important,  and  as  the  above 
methods  are  slow,  wasteful,  and  apt  to  give  a  poor  quality  of 
wax,  specialists,  and  even  amateurs  who  keep  ten  or  twenty 
colonies  of  bees,  may  well  procure  a  wax-extractor  (Fig.  180). 
This  is  also  a  foreign  invention,  the  first  being  made  by  Prof. 
Gerster,  of  Berne,  Switzerland.     These  cost  from  five  to  seven 

Fig.  181. 


Jones  Wax-Extractor. — From  D.  A.  Jones. 

dollars,  are  made  of  tin,  are  very  convenient  and  admirable, 
and  can  be  procured  of  any  dealer  in  apiarian  supplies. 

The  comb  is  placed  in  the  perforated  vessel,  and  this  in 
the  larger  can,  which  is  set  on  a  kettle  of  boiling  water.  The 
clean,  pure  wax  passes  out  the  spout.  Mr.  Jones  has  improved 
the  common  wax-extractor  (Fig.  181).  This  is  what  he  says 
of  it: 

"  Put  the  extractor  on  the  stove  in  the  same  manner  as  an 
ordinary  pot,  having  beforehand  filled  the  lower  tank  with 
water,  and  the  perforated  basket  above  the   tank  with  broken 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF   THE    APIARY.  369 

comb  or  whatever  material  j-on  wish  to  extract  wax  from. 
The  steam  passes  through  the  perforated  metal  walls  of  the 
basket,  melting  every  particle  of  was  from  the  crude  material; 
the  wax  runsoutof  aspout  for  the  purpose,  turned  downwards  ; 
under  this  spout  have  a  receptacle,  which  have  slightly  oiled,' 
to  keep  the  wax  from  adhering  to  its  walls.  The  tube  turned 
upwards  serves  two  very  important  purposes,  viz.:  To  fill 
water  into  the  lower  tank,  and  to  see  if  the  tank  requires 
replenishing,  without  taking  out  the  basket  above.  Keep 
ever>'thing  but  the  spout  closed,  in  order  to  lose  no  steam  and 
give  it  full  force.  When  not  in  use  as  an  extractor  it  is 
excellent  as  an  uncapping-can  ;  the  cappings  drop  into  basket. 

Fig.  182. 


Solar  Wax-Extractor. —From  A.  I.  Boot  Co. 

the  honey  drains  oflF,  leaving  the  cappings  just  where  you  want 
them  to  extract  from." 

Still  better  than  the  above  is  the  solar  wax-extractor  (Fig. 
182).  This  is  cheap,  and  can  be  easily  made  at  small  cost. 
A  box  lined  with  tin  has  hinged  to  its  top,  first,  a  glass  cover, 
and  then  to  the  top  of  this  glass  cover,  a  wooden  cover  lined 
with  tin,  or  a  glass  mirror. 

A  perforated  tin  wax-pan  is  made  to  set  just  under  the 
glass  cover.  This  is  placed  conveniently  where  the  sun  can 
strike  it,  and  is  always  ready  for  pieces  of  wax.  By  raising 
the  upper  cover  the  reflector  hastens  the  work.  lvalue  the 
solar  wax-extractor  very  highly.  It  is  always  ready  for  pieces 
of  comb.  The  Boardman  extractor  (Fig.  183)  has  only  the 
glass  cover,  and  is  on  rockers  to  give  proper  incline  to  catch 
the  sun.     The  solar  wax-extractor,   indeed,  all   the  methods 


370 


THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 


thus  far  described,  fail  to  secure  all  the  wax  from  old,  black 
combs,  hence  the 

WAX-PRESS. 

This  valuable  invention  was  given  us  by  Mr.  Wm.  W.  Gary. 
Mr.  C.  A.  Hatch  says  it  will  pay  if  one  has  one  hundred  pounds 
of  wax  to  render.  In  old  combs  it  will  save  ten  percent  or 
more.  Mr.  Hatch  says  two  men  will  render  three  hundred 
pounds  in  one  day.  It  is  also  a  neat  way.  Neatness,  despatch, 
thoroughness — surely,  a  grand  trio. 

The  press  is  used  much  as  we  use  a  cider-press  to  express 
apple-juice.     Mr.  Hatch   uses  a   large  kettle  in  which   to  melt 

Fig.  183. 


Boarcltium  Solar  Wax-Extractor.— From  A.  I.  Boot  Co. 


the  wax.  This  is  done  out-of-doors.  About  eight  gallons  of 
water  are  kept  in  the  kettle.  Only  four  other  parts  are  needed. 
A  frame  with  screw  (Fig.  184),  which  may  be  turned  down  as 
seen  in  figure  ;  a  tray  about  eighteen  inches  square  with  lip, 
a  form  fifteen  inches  square  and  four  inches  high,  and  the 
slotted  rack,  which  Mr.  Hatch  makes  of  triangular  pieces, 
such  as  he  uses  for  the  top-bars  of  his  frames.  These  may  be 
one-eighth  of  an   inch   apart.     Of  course,  a  good  quality  of 


OR,    MANUAL  OF  THE   APIARY.  371 

burlap  and  a  square  board  follower  are  required.  The  cheese 
is  made  by  dipping  the  melted  comb  and  wax  into  the  form, 
which  has  the  slotted  rack  below,  and  the  burlaps  laid  over 
all.  Mr.  Hatch  pins  the  burlaps  over  the  cheese  with  long, 
slim  wire  nails,  Of  course  the  form  is  in  the  tray,  and  it  is 
easy  to  see  that  the  press  will  do  the  work. 

By  these  last  inventions  all  the  wax,  even  of  the  oldest 
combs,  can  be  secured,  in  beautiful  condition,  and  as  it  is  per- 
fectly neat,  there  is  no  danger  of  provoking  the  "  best  woman 

Fig.  184. 


W<xx-rre»x.-~From  A.  I.  liout  Co. 

in  the  world,"  as  we  are  in  danger  of  doing  by  use  of  either 
of  the  first-named  methods-for  what  is  more  untidy  and  per- 
plexing than  to  have  wax  boil  over  on  the  stove,  and  perhaps 
get  on  the  floor,  and  be  generally  scattered  about  ? 

All  pieces  of  comb  should  be  put  into  a  close  box,  or  in  the 
solar  wax-extractor  if  we  have  one.  and  if  any  larvae  are  in  it, 
the  comb  should  be  melted  so   frequently  that  it  will  not  smell 


372  THE  bke-kbeper's  guide 

badly.  It  will  often  pay  to  use  the  press  on  comb  that  has 
been  melted  in  the  solar  wax-extractor — nearly  always  in  case 
of  very  old  comb.  By  taking  pains,  both  in  collecting  and 
melting,  the  apiarist  will  be  surprised  at  the  close  of  the  sea- 
son, as  he  views  his  numerous  and  beautiful  cakes  of  wax,  and 
rejoice  as  he  thinks  how  little  trouble  it  has  all  cost. 

Beeswax  as  bought  on  the  market  is  of  all  colors,  and  often 
full  of  impurities.  If  this  ia  melted  in  water  containing  sul- 
phuric acid — one  pound  to  overy  100  gallons  of  water — it  may 
be  entirely  cleansed,  and  made  uniform.  In  very  dirty  comb 
the  acid  should  be  doubled.  If  the  comb  is  quite  clean,  not 
more  than  half  as  much  is  required.  Mr.  Doolittle  uses  vin- 
egar and  water,  half  and  half.  One  pint  of  vinegar  answers 
for  ten  pounds  of  wax.  This  is  more  expensive  than  is  the 
sulphuric  acid.  This  is  usually  melted  in  a  wooden  vessel— a 
barrel  serves  well.  It  is  melted  by  steam,  and  so  there  is  no 
danger  of  burning.  Care  is  necessary  that  it  does  not  boil 
over,  and  that  all  the  wax  is  melted.  Thus,  after  it  seems 
melted  it  should  simmer  for  a  time.  When  cooled  down  to 
near  the  point  of  solidification,  it  is  dipped  out,  down  to  any 
foreign  matter,  then  cooled,  and  any  remaining  wax  scraped 
oflF.     Wax  thus  cleansed  makes  the  finest  foundation. 

Wax  is  readily  bleached  by  placing  thin  sheets  or  ribbons 
in  the  sun.  Unbleached  wax  is  better  for  foundation,  and  in 
use  is  practically  as  beautiful. 

Wax  is  adulterated  with  tallow,  paraflBne  and  ceresin.  We 
can  usually  detect  tallow  by  the  odor  and  taste.  The  latter  is 
betrayed  by  chewing.  Wax  is  brittle,  while  wax  adulterated 
with  these  coal-oil  products  is  salvy,  and  so  chews  up  like 
gum.  As  stated  on  page  176,  these  petroleum  products  are 
lighter  than  wax,  so  if  we  add  alcohol  to  water  until  a  speci- 
men of  wax  of  known  purity  just  sinks,  we  have  a  sure  detec- 
tion of  this  latter  kind  of  adulteration.  Mr.  Root  says  he  can 
nearly  always  detect  adulteration  in  these  ways. 

Hot  water  and  benzine  are  excellent  to  clean  wax  from  ves- 
sels, etc.  We  must  not  melt  wax  in  galvanized-iron  vessels, 
as  it  will  injure  the  wax. 


OR,    MANUAI.  OF  THE  APIARY.  373 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

MARKETING  HONEY. 

No  subject  merits  more  attention  by  the  apiarist  than  that 
of  marketing  honey.  There  is  no  question  but  that  the  supply 
is  going-  to  increase  continually  ;  hence,  to  sustain  the  price 
we  must  stimulate  the  demand,  and  by  doing  this  we  shall  not 
only  supply  the  people  with  a  food  element  which  is  necessary 
to  health,  but  we  shall  also  supersede  in  part  the  commercial 
syrups,  which  are  so  often  adulterated  as  not  only  to  be 
crowded  with  filth  the  most  revolting,  but  are  often  even  teem- 
ing with  poison.  (Report  of  Michigan  Board  of  Health  for 
1874,  pages  75-79.)  To  bring,  then,  to  our  neighbor's  table  the 
pure,  wholesome,  delicious  nectar,  right  from  the  hive,  is 
philanthropy,  whether  he  realizes  it  or  not. 

Nor  is  it  difficult  to  stimulate  the  demand.  I  have  given 
special  attention  to  this  topic  for  the  last  few  years,  and  am 
free  to  say  that  not  a  tithe  of  the  honey  is  consumed  in  our 
country  that  might  and  should  be. 

HOW  TO  INVIGORATE  THE   MARKET. 

First.  See  that  no  honey  goes  to  market  from  your  apiary 
that  is  not  in  the  most  inviting  form  possible.  Grade  all  the 
honey  thoroughly,  and  expect  prices  to  correspond  with  the 
grade.  If,  as  estimated  by  two  of  our  most  successful  bee- 
keepers, it  costs  from  five  to  eight  cents  to  produce  extracted 
honey,  and  from  seven  to  thirteen  cents  to  produce  comb 
honey,  we  see  that  all  should  labor  that  prices  for  first-class 
honey  should  never  fall  below  eight  cents  for  extracted  and 
twelve  cents  for  comb.  The  best  grades  ought  always  to  sell 
for  ten  cents  for  extracted  and  fifteen  cents  for  comb.  See 
that  every  package  and  vessel  is  not  only  attractive,  but  so 
arranged  as  not  to  make  the  dealer  any  trouble,  or  cause  him 
any  vexation.     One  leaky  can  or  case  may  do  great  injury. 

Second.    See  that  every  grocer  in  your  vicinity  has  honey 


374 


THE  BEE-KEEPBR'S  guide  : 


constaatly  on  hand.  Do  all  you  can  to  build  up  a  home  mar- 
ket. The  advice  to  sell  to  only  one  or  two  dealers  is,  I  think, 
wrong.  Whether  we  are  to  buy  or  sell,  we  shall  find  almost 
always  that  it  will  be  most  satisfactory  todeal  with  men  whom 

Fig.  185. 


Show-Case. — From  A.  I.  Boot  Co. 


we  know,  and  who  are  close  at  hand.  Only  when  you  outgrow 
your  home  market  should  you  ship  to  distant  places.  This 
course  will  limit  the  supply  in  large  cities,  and  thus  raise  the 
prices  in  the  great  marts,  whose  prices  fix  those  in  the  country. 
Be  sure  to  keep  honey  constantly  in  the  markets. 

Third.  Insist  that  each  grocer  make  the  honey  very  con- 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  375 

spicuous.    If  necessary,  supply  large,  fine  labels,  with  your 
own  name  almost  as  prominent  as  that  of  the  article. 

Fourth.  Deliver  the  honey  in  small  lots,  so  that  it  will  be 
sure  to  be  kept  in  inviting  form,  and,  if  possible,  attend  to  the 
deUvery  yourself,  that  you  may  know  that  all  is  done 
" decently  and  in  order." 

Fifth.  Instruct  your  grocers  that  they  may  make  the 
honey  show  to  the  best  effect  (Fig.  185),  and  thus  captivate  the 
purchaser  through  the  sight  alone. 

Sixth.  Never  send  honey  to  a  commission  man  of  whose 
standing  you  are  not  assured.  Your  banker  may  be  able  to 
secure  this  for  you.  The  fact  that  a  commission  man  adver- 
tises in  the  bee-papers  is  a  pretty  safe  guarantee  of  his  honesty. 
It  is  for  the  interest  of  the  journals  to  protect  the  bee-keepers 
in  this  regard. 

Seventh.  Call  local  and  general  conventions,  that  all  in  the 
community  may  know  and  practice  the  best  methods,  so  that 
the  markets  may  not  be  demoralized  by  poor,  unsalable  honey. 
Eighth.  There  should  be  a  Bee-Keepers'  Exchange  whicli 
should  be  modeled  after  the  very  successful  Citrus  Fruit 
Exchange,  of  Southern  California.  Such  co-operation  in  every 
State  would  remove  all  uncertainty.  It  is  sure  to  come.  All 
bee-keepers  should  do  all  in  their  power  to  hasten  the  day  of 
its  coming. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  encourage  State,  inter- 
State,  and  National  Associations.  Happily,  our  civilization 
makes  every  person  affected  by  the  acts  of  each  person.  Self- 
ishness, not  less  than  Christianity,  urges  us  all  to  be  inter- 
ested in  each  other.  The  honey-traffic  reaches  from  State  to 
State.  Bee-keeping  will  never  be  perfect  as  an  art  till  all  bee- 
keepers act  as  one  man.  He  is  short-sighted  that  decries  con- 
ventions. It  is  the  experience  of  the  world  that  they  are 
valuable  in  other  arts.  Bee-keeping  is  no  exception.  I^et  us 
all  urge  that  the  associations  act  in  unison,  from  the  local  to 
th^  general ;  that  all  other  apiarian  interests  no  less  than  the 
markets  shall  be  in  the  highest  degree  fostered.  Each  asso- 
ciation, from  the  most  local  to  the  most  general,  has  its  spe- 
cial mission  which  no  other  can  perform.  Such  associations 
will  usually  promote  general  co-operation. 


376 


OR,  MANUAL   OF   THE   APIARY. 


PRBPARATIONS    FOR   MARKETS. 

Of  course,  the  method  of  preparation  will  depend  largely 
upon  the  style  of  honey  to  be  sold,  so  we  will  consider  the 
kinds  separately. 

EXTRACTED   HONEY. 

As  before  intimated,  extracted  honey  has  all  the  flavor, 
and  is  in  every  way  equal,  if  not  superior — comb  itself  is 
innutritious  and  very  indigestible — to  comb  honey.    As  Dr. 


Fig.  186. 


Miller  has  pointed  out,  granulated  honey,  thoroughly  drained 
and  then  melted,  gives  a  most  delicious  article.  When  people 
once  know  its  excellence — know  that  it  is  not  "  strained " — 
then  the  demand  for  extracted  honey  will  be  vastly  increased, 
to  the  advantage  both  of  the  consumer  and  the  apiarist. 

Explain  to  each  grocer  what  we  mean  by  the  word 
"  extracted,"  and  ask  him  to  spread  wide  the  name  and  char- 
acter of  the  honey.  Leave  cups  of  honey  with  the  editors  and 
men  of  influence,  and  get  them  to  discuss  its  origin  and  merits. 


OR,    MANUAL  OF   THE   APIARY.  377 

I  Speak  from  experience,  when  I  say  that  in  these  ways  the 
reputation  and  demand  for  extracted  honey  can  be  increased 
tea  surprising  degree,  and  with  astonishing  rapidity. 

HOW  TO  TEMPT  THE  CONSUMER. 

First.  Have  it  chiefly  in  small  cups  or  pails.  Many  per- 
sons will  pay  twenty-five  cents  for  an  article,  when,  if  it  cost 
fifty  cents,  they  would  not  think  of  purchasing. 

Second.  Study  the  kinds  of  receptacles  that  will  take  best 
with  the  buyers.  Some  persons  will  prefer  such  vessels  as 
jelly-cups  or  glass  fruit-jars,  etc.,  that  will  be  useful  in  every 
household  when  the  honey  is  gone.  As  Dr.  Mason  and  Mr. 
Cutting  have  shown,  jelly-cups,  by  simply  dipping  the  upper 
edge  in  melted  wax,  then  quickly  filled  and  covered,  are  quite 
securely  sealed.  Mr.  Root  recommends  that  the  honey  be 
covered  with  a  paper  dipped  in  white  of  eggt  which  further 
seals  the  vessel.  Others  will  prefer  more  showy  vessels,  like 
the    Muth    one-pound    and    two-pound  jars  (Fig.    186),   even 

Fig. 187. 


Frwiii  Ainerlcaii  BeeJunrnaJ. 

though  they  cost  more.  At  present  the  neat  tin  pails  (Fig. 
187),  holding  from  one-half  pound  to  twelve  pounds,  are  very 
popular  in  the  markets.  The  covers  shut  inside,  and  if  the 
honey  is  granulated  they  are  very  excellent.  The  bails  make 
them  more  convenient  and  salable.  Mr.  Jones  has  a  pail  that 
is  easily  sealed  with  wax  strings,  and  is  beautifully  decorated 
with  chromoed  labels.  Such  pails  are  cheap,  convenient,  and 
leave  little  to  be  desired.  Their  beauty  aids  the  sale.  Mr.  A. 
I.  Root  pronounces  them  the  best  receptacle  for  extracted 
honey. 


378  THE  bee-kkeper's  guidb; 

If  the  honey  is  to  be  sent  to  a  distant  market  it  may  be  put 
in  soft  wood — spruce,  pine  or  hemlock — kegs  (Fig-.  188).  These 
are  light,  and  if  we  carefully  drive  the  hoops,  and  test  by  use 
of  boiling  water,  we  need  not   wax  them.     Hard  wood  barrels 

Fig.  188. 


From  American  Bee  Journal. 

must  be  waxed,  then  if  the  honey  granulates  the  hoops  must 
be  loosened  to  take  out  the  head.  This  cracks  the  wax  and  a 
leak  results.  As  before  stated  on  page  333,  alcohol  barrels  are 
cheap,  and  safe  even  without  waxing.     At  present  large  tin 

Fig.  189. 


Ca7isfor  Eiiracttd  Hunnj  in  Jacket.— Fro)n  A.  I.  Boot  Co. 

vessels  in  wooden  jackets  (Fig.  189)  are  rapidly  gaining  in 
favor.  These  are  absolutely  necessary  in  such  dry  climates 
as  California.  Even  small  tin  vessels  of  honey  can  be  safely 
and  cheaply  shipped  as  freight  by  packing  in  barrels,  using 
straw  to  make  all  close  and  secure.     Mr.  Doolittle  has  even 


OR,    MANUAt  O^  THti   APIARY.  ^70 

boxed  thoroughly  candied  honey  and  shipped  it  safely  for  long- 
distances.     He  has  quite  a  trade  in  such  packages. 

Third.  Explain  to  the  grocer  that  if  kept  above  the  tem- 
perature of  70°  or  80"  P.,  it  will  not  granulate ;  that  granula- 
tion is  a  pledge  of  purity  and  superiority,  and  show  him  how 
easy  it  is  to  reduce  the  crystals,  and  ask  him  to  explain  this  to 
his  customers.  If  necessary,  liquefy  some  of  the  granulated 
honey  in  his  presence.  Put  on  the  labels  directions  for 
reliquefying  candied  honey.  Honey,  like  many  other  sub- 
stances, will  not  granulate  if  heated  to  180°  F.,  and  then  sealed 
while  hot.  This  does  no  injury  to  the  honey,  but  it  is  trouble, 
and  makes  the  honey  less  convenient  to  ship,  though  at  times 
it  may  pay  until  we  can  educate  our  patrons  in  reference  to 
the  excellence  of  granulated  houey. 

Lastly.  If  you  do  not  deliver  the  honey  yourself,  be  sure 
that  the  vessels  will  not  leak  in  transit.  It  is  best,  in  case 
jeUy-cups  are  used,  that  they  be  filled  at  the  grocery,  and 
sealed  as  already  described.  Do  not  forget  the  large  label, 
which  gives  the  kind  of  honey,  grade,  and  producer's  name. 

If  the  honey  is  extracted  before  it  is  fully  ripened— before 
the  bees  cap  it— it  should  always  be  kept  in  an  open  can  or 
barrel,  covered  with  cloth,  and  in  a  dry,  warm  room.  Thus 
arranged  it  will  thicken  as  well  as  in  the  hive.  No  honey 
should  ever  be  kept  in  a  cool,  damp  room. 

The  admirable  work  of  the  late  Mr.  C.  F.  Muth,  in  Cincin- 
nati, educating  people  i,n  reference  to  extracted  honey,  fighting 
all  adulteration,  pushing  it  into  the  candy,  tobacco,  and  con- 
fectionery establishments,  deserves  our  hearty  gratitude.  Mr. 
Muth's  market  became  stupendous,  and  graphically  shows 
what  this  trade  is  to  be  in  the  near  future,  when  all  our  cities 
have  a  Muth  to  work  for  us.  I  would  also  recommend  to  all 
the  very  valuable  little  pamphlet  of  Mr.  Chas.  Dadant,  on  the 
production  and  sale  of  extracted  honey.  It  is  most  interesting 
reading  to  the  honey-producer,  and  shows  what  energy  and 
thought  may  accomplish  in  this  direction.  Every  bee-keeper 
should  watch  the  markets,  and  so  must  have  one,  or,  better, 
two  of  the  best  bee-periodicals.  He  should  also  circulate  honey 
leaflets  to  encourage  sales. 


380  THB  bbs-kkbpbr's  guidb; 

This,  from  its  wondrous  beauty,  especially  when  light- 
colored  and  immaculate,  will  always  be  a  coveted  article  for 
the  table,  and  will  ever,  with  proper  care,  bring  the  highest 
price  paid  for  honey.  So  it  will  always  be  best  to  work  for 
this,  even  though  we  may  not  be  able  to  procure  it  in  such 
ample  profusion  as  we  may  the  extracted.  He  who  has  all 
kinds  will  be  able  to  satisfy  every  demand,  and  will  most 
surely  meet  with  success. 

RUtES  TO  BE  OBSERVED. 

This  should  be  chiefly  in  small  sections  (Fig.  108),  for,  as 
before  stated,  such  are  the  packages  that  surely  sell.  Sections 
from  three  to  six  inches  square  will  just  fill  a  plate  nicely,  and 
look  very  tempting  to  the  proud  housewife,  especially  if  some 
epicurean  friends  are  to  be  entertained. 

The  sections  should  surely  be  in  place  at  the  dawn  of  the 
white  clover  season,  so  that  the  apiarist  may  secure  the  most 
of  this  irresistible  nectar,  chaste  as  if  capped  by  the  very  snow 
itself.  They  should  be  taken  away  as  soon  as  all  are  capped, 
or  at  least  as  soon  as  the  harvest  is  over,  as  delay  tnakes  them 
highways  of  travel  for  the  bees,  which  always  mars  their 
beauty. 

In  case  old  combs  are  near  by,  the  bees  incorporate  chip- 
pings  from  it  in  the  cappings,  much  to  the  injury  of  the  comb 
honey.  Thus  sections  should  be  always  produced  in  supers 
above  the  brood-combs,  or  distant  from  old,  dark  combs. 

When  removed,  if  demanded,  glass  the  sections,  but  before 
this  we  should  place  them  in  hives  one  upon  another,  or  spe- 
cial boxes  made  tight,  with  a  close  cover,  in  which  to  store 
either  brood-frames  in  winter  or  sections  at  any  season,  and 
fume  them  with  burning  sulphur.  This  is  quickly  and  easily 
done  by  use  of  the  smoker.  Get  the  fire  in  the  smoker  well  to 
burning,  add  the  sulphur,  then  place  this  in  the  top  hive,  or 
top  of  the  special  box.  The  sulphurous  fumes  will  descend 
and  deal  out  death  to  all  moth-larvas.  This  should  always  be 
done  before  shipping  the  honey,  if  we  regard  our  reputations 
as  precious.  It  is  well  to  do  this  within  two  weeks  after  re- 
moval, and  also  two  weeks  later,  so  as  to  destroy  the  moth- 
larvae  not  hatched  when  the  sections  are  removed.    Bisulphide 


OR,   MANUAi;  OF  THR   APIARY.  381 

of  carbon  is  more  easily  used  than  is  sulphur,  and  is  quite  as 
effective.  This  needs  only  to  be  turned  into  the  close  box 
holding  the  sections.  Sections  may  be  treated  in  a  close  barrel 
covered  with  oil-cloth.  The  vapors  form  very  quickly,  and  are 
deadly  to  all  insects.  It  is  used  in  mills  to  kill  flour  insects  ;  in 
special  houses  or  barrels  to  kill  pea  and  bean  weevils  ;  in  their 
runs  to  kill  squirrels  and  gophers  ;  in  holes,  or  in  their  hills, 
to  kill  ants.  In  all  such  use  great  care  must  be  exercised,  as 
it  is  as  inflammable  as  is  gasoline,  and  it  vaporizes  even  more 
quickly.  The  quick  vaporization  is  what  makes  it  so  effective. 
An  inferior  article,  which  is  as  good  for  all  these  purposes, 
sells  very  cheaply. 

If  one-pound  sections  are  used  with   separators  bees  will 
seldom  enter  them  to  store  pollen,  and,  with  no  pollen  at  all  in 
Fig.  190. 


12-lb.  and  24-lb.  SMppmg.Cases.—From  A.  I.  Eoot  Co. 


the  combs,  moths  are  not  likely  to  be  troublesome.  If  separa- 
tors have  been  used,  these  sections  are  in  good  condition  to  ship, 
as  they  may  stand  side  by  side  and  not  mar  the  comb. 

The  shipping-case  (Fig.  190)  should  be  strong,  neat  and 
cheap,  with  handles— such  handles  are  also  convenient  in  the 
ends  of  the  hives  (Fig.  159),  and  can  be  cut  in  an  instant  by 
having  the  circular  saw  set  to  wabble.  With  handles  the  case 
is  more  convenient,  and  is  more  sure  to  be  set  on  its  bottom. 
The  case  should  also  be  glassed,  as  the  sight  of  the  comb  will 
say:  "  Handle  with  care."  It  is  always  wiser  to  buy  ship- 
ping-cases  in  the  "knock-down."  They  are  neater,  and 
usually  cheaper  than   home-made  ones.     Strong  paper  trays 


382 


THE  BEE-KEEPER'S  GUIDE! 


should  be  placed  in  them.  The  sections  should  rest  on  cleats, 
which  are  nailed  to  hold  the  paper.  We  must  do  all  possible 
to  prevent  leakinc;-. 

Mr.  Heddon  makes  a  larger  case  (Fig.  191),  which  is  neat 
and  cheap.  It  is  best  to  have  single-tier  cases  (Fig.  190),  and 
when  full  they  should  not  weigh  more  than  twenty-four  pounds. 

Fig.  191. 


Shipping-Case. — Frotn  James  Heddon. 

However,  some  prefer  forty-eight  pound  cases.  These  are 
double  (Fig,  191).  Even  twelve-pound  cases  are  preferred  by 
many. 

Fig.  192. 


Carton  for  Comb-Boney, — From  A.  I.  Boot  Co. 


It  may  be  well  to  wrap  the  sections  in  paper,  as  thus 
breakage  of  one  will  not  mean  general  ruin.  A  carton  (Fig. 
192)  is  often  very  helpful.  These  are  neat  and  convenient, 
and  with  neat  label  cost  less  than   one  ceot.     Mr.  Crane,  of 


OS,    MANUAI,  OF  THB  APIARY. 


383 


Vermont,  praises  these  very  highly,     Grocerymea  may  well  be 
urged  to  use  them. 

In  shipping  in  freight  cars,  it  is  desirable  that  the  sections 
be  set  lengthwise  of  the  cars,  as  the  danger  from  the  shocks  of 
starting  and  stopping  will  be  much  less.    Always  ship  a  car- 

FiG.  193 


Fancy. 


No.l. 
Comb-Honetj. — From  A .  I.  Root  Co. 


No.  2. 


load,  if  possible,  so  as  to  avoid  re-shipping.  When  moving 
honey  in  a  wagon  the  combs  should  extend  crosswise  of  the 
wagon. 

In  groceries,  where  the  apiarist  keeps  honey  for  sale,  it  will 
pay  him,  unless  the  groceryman  will  use  a  fine  exhibition  case, 
to  furnish  his  own  boxes.  These  should  be  made  of  white- 
wood,  very  neat,  and  glassed  in  front  to  show  the  honey,  and 
the  cover  so  fixed  that  unglassed  sections— and  these,  probably 
will  soon  become  the  most  popular— can  not  be  punched  or 
fingered.  Be  sure,  too,  that  the  label,  with  kind  of  honey, 
grade,  and  name  of  apiarist  (Fig.  185)  be  so  plain  that  "he 
who  runs  may  read," 


384  THE  bee-keepkr's  guide; 

The  grading  of  the  honey  can  not  be  too  carefully  and 
honestly  done.  One  or  more  inferior  sections  in  the  middle  of 
a  case  may,  and  ought  to,  do  the  packer  great  harm.  "  An 
honest  pack  "  should  be  the  motto  and  pride  of  every  man  who 
has  honey  or  any  other  commodity  to  sell.  All  sections  well 
filled  should  be  called  "  fancy  "  (Fig.  193),  and  all  filled  wholly, 
"  extra  fancy  "  (Fig.  194).     If  not  quite  filled  out  at  the  corners 

Fig.  194. 


Comb  Honey ^  Extra  Faru^y,  in  Plain  SecUom. 
—From  A.  I.  Hoot  Co. 

it  may  be  No.  1 ;  when  quite  a  space  is  empty,  No.  2.  (See 
Fig.  193.)  These  four  grades  will  be  enough.  The  kind  of 
honey  should  be  on  the  label,  as  "  Buckwheat,  Extra  Fancy," 
"Clover.  Fancy,"  etc.  All  honey  below  No.  2  should  be  kept, 
and  after  being  cleaned  out  as  before  described,  retained  for 
baits  the  next  season. 

Every  bee-keeper  should  encourage  the  sale  of  honey  by 
broadly  circulating  the  honey  leaflets,  showing  how  honey  can 
be  used  in   cookery,  etc.    The  following  recipes  are  used  in 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THS  APIARY.  385 

making  gems  and    jumbles,  which   are     largely  sold  in  the 
markets : 

Gkms.— 2  quarts  flour,  3  tablespoonfuls  melted  lard,  y^  pint 
honey,  >^  pint  molasses,  4  heaping  tablespoonsfuls  brown 
sugar,  V/z  even  tablespoonfuls  soda,  one  even  teaspoonful  salt, 
Yz  pint  water,  Yz  teaspoonful  vanilla  extract. 

Jumbles.— 2  quarts  flour,  3  tablespoonfuls  melted  lard,  1 
pint  honey,  X  pint  molasses.  1)^  even  teaspoonfuls  soda.  1 
even  teaspoonful  salt,  X  pint  water,  Yz  teaspoonful  vanilla 
extract. 

Mr.  Root,  in  the  "  A  B  C  of  Bee-Culture,"  gives  many 
recipes,  besides  the  above,  which  call  for  honey. 

Comb  honey  that  is  to  be  kept  in  the  cool  weather  of 
autumn,  or  the  cold  of  winter,  must  be  kept  in  warm  rooms, 
or  the  comb  will  break  from  the  sections  when  handled.  By 
keeping  it  quite  warm  for  some  days  previous  to  shipment,  it 
may  be  sent  to  market  even  in  winter,  but  must  be  handled 
very  carefully,  and  must  make  a  quick  transit. 

Above  all,  let  "  taste  and  neatness  "  ever  be  your  motto. 

MARKETING   BEES. 

Before  leaving  this  subject,  let  me  say  a  word  about  selling 
bees. 

SELI.ING  QUEENS. 

As  queen-rearing  and  shipping  have  already  been  suffi- 
ciently described,  it  only  remains  to  be  said  that  the  vender  of 
queens  can  not  be  too  prompt,  or  fair,  or  cautious.  Success, 
no  less  than  morality,  demands  the  most  perfect  honesty.  If, 
for  any  reason,  queens  can  not  be  sent  promptly,  the  money 
should  be  returned  at  once,  explanation  made,  and,  if  reason- 
able, delay  may  be  requested.  The  breeder,  who,  by  careful 
selection  and  care  in  following  the  rules  of  breeding,  shall 
secure  a  type  of  bees  pronounced  in  excellence,  will  surely  win 
in  the  race.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  capable,  persistent 
breeder  of  bees  should  not  equal  in  success  the  best  breeders 
of  cattle  and  horses. 

I  have  described  shipping  bees.  The  rules  just  given 
should  guide  also  in  selling  whole  colonies. 


THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 


SELUNG  BEES  BY  THE  POUND. 


This  has  been  quite  a  business,  and  originated,  I  think, 
with  Mr.  A.  I.  Root.  The  bees  are  put,  by  use  of  a  large  tin 
funnel,  into  a  cage  (Fig.  195)  made  of  sections,  as  shown  in  the 
figure.  The  handle  makes  it  easy  to  carry  them,  and  they  get 
careful  handling  without  any  special  request.  It  is  said  that 
a  pound  of  bees  can  be  prepared  for  shipment  in  five  minutes. 
The  cages  are  provisioned   with  "  Good  candy."     It  is  always 


From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 

safe  to  get  a  pound  of  bees  in  June  or  July,  with  a  queen, 
expecting  to  have  a  good  colony  by  winter.  It  is  reported  that 
from  such  a  start,  even  five  good  colonies  have  been  secured, 
all  of  which  wintered.     In  this  case  they  were  fed. 

VINEGAR   FROM   HONEY. 

Mr.  T.  F.  Bingham  utilizes  the  cappings  secured  while 
extracting  to  produce  wax  and  a  most  excellent  quality  of 
vinegar.  The  honey  is  drained  from  the  cappings,  which  are 
then  covered  for  an  hour  or  two  with  water.  The  cappings 
from  1000  pounds  of  honey  will  sweeten  enough  water  for  forty- 
five  gallons  of  vinegar.  The  water  is  now  drained  into  an 
open  barrel,  which  should  be  kept  covered  with  cloth.  The 
scum  should  be  removed  as  it  rises.  In  about  a  year  the 
change  to  first-class  vinegar  will  have  been  accomplished. 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF   THB  APIARY.  387 

After  the  water  is  drained  from  the  cappings  they  can  be  con- 
verted into  pure  wax,  as  already  described. 

The  poorer  grades  of  honey  and  rinsings  from  cleaning 
barrels  and  honey  from  utensils  may  also  be  profitably  used 
in  the  same  way.  One  and  one-half  pounds  of  honey  will 
make  one  gallon  of  the  best  vinegar.  Mr.  EJ.  France  adds 
honey  to  water  until  an  egg  sinks  so  as  to  expose  a  surface 
about  the  size  of  a  ten-cent  piece.  It  should  be  put  in  a  close 
barrel  with  a  one-inch  auger-hole  to  permit  escape  of  gases. 
Some  good  vinegar  or  yeast  should  be  added  to  start  fermen- 
tation. After  working  or  fermentation  commences  draw  off  a 
pailful  occasionally  and  turn  it  back.  If  one  or  two  kegs  or 
barrels  are  working  at  the  same  time,  turn  from  one  into  the 
other.  It  is  well  to  turn  old  vinegar  into  new  or  unripe,  but 
the  reverse  should  never  be  done,  as  it  injures  the  keeping 
qualities.  By  using  old,  sour  barrels  and  old  vinegar  to  start 
fermentation,  vinegar  may  be  made  in  one  year,  else  it  will 
take  two. 

FAIRS  AND  THB  MARKET. 

Our  English  friends  have  demonstrated  that  large  honey 
exhibitions  are  most  powerful  aids  in  developing  the  honey 
market. 

Till  within  a.  few  years  our  American  honey  exhibits  have 
been  a  disgrace  and  a  hindrance,  and  they  are  largely  so  to- 
day. A  little  second-rate  honey  sandwiched  in  with  sugar  and 
syrups,  and  supplemented  by  a  cake  or  two  of  black,  dirty  wax, 
describes  the  honey  exhibit  of  most  of  our  fairs  to-day.  The 
premiums  range  from  twenty-five  cents  to  fifty  cents, 

WHAT  SHOUI^D  WB   HAVE  ? 

Our  Industry  demands  a  separate  building,  filled  with 
tons,  not  pounds,  of  honey,  and  exhibiting  everything  that  is 
valuable  in  modern  apiculture.  Bees  may  be  exhibited  in 
hives  covered  by  wire-gauze,  and  if  it  is  desired  to  manipulate 
thern,  this  can  be  readily  done  in  a  bee-tent,  to  the  great  satis- 
faction and  pleasure  of  many  who  knpw  nothing  of  such  mat- 
ters.   I  have  proved  this  by  actual  trial. 

It  can  be  arranged  with  the  managers  that  sales  of  honey 


388  THE  bee-keepkr's  guide  ; 

and  all  apparatus  be  made  at  any  time  at  this  building,  on 
conditions  that  the  exhibit  should  be  in  nowise  interfered  with. 
The  premiums  should  range  from  one  dollar  to  twenty,  and  the 
total  should  reach  to  the  hundreds. 

We  have  found  in  Michigan  that  all  that  is  necessary  to 
effect  this  grand  and  invaluable  transformation  is  a  little  life 
and  energy  on  the  part  of  the  bee-keepers.  Through  the  enter- 
prise of  H.  D.  Cutting  and  others,  the  bee-keeping  exhibit  of 
our  State  fairs,  in  a  separate  building,  leaves  little  to  be 
desired,  and  is  a  credit  to  the  industry. 

effects  of  such  exhibits. 

They  show,  that  apiculture  is  no  second-rate  business. 
They  attract  attention  and  educate  as  nothing  else  can.  They 
go  hand  in  hand  with  local  conventions  in  instructing  bee- 
keepers so  that  no  inferior  honey  will  go  on  the  markets. 
They  enable  bee-keepers  to  see  and  buy  just  what  they  need 
in  the  more  intelligent  prosecution  of  their  business.  They 
scatter  the  little  pint,  half-pint,  and  gill  pails  of  honey  into 
thousands  of  homes,  and  develop  a  knowledge  and  taste  that 
stimulate  the  honey  market  most  powerfully.  Tons  of  honey 
have  been  sold  at  the  Toronto  fairs,  the  influence  of  which  has 
been  a  lasting  surprise  even  to  the  most  enterprising  pro- 
ducers. I  believe  that  the  great  quartet  that  is  to  advance 
apiculture  is  fairs,  associations,  co-operative  organizations, 
and  improved  bees. 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THK  APIARV. 


CHAPTER  XVn. 

HONEY-PLANTS. 

As  bees  are  dependent  mainly  upon  flowers  for  honey,  it 
of  course  follows  that  the  apiarist's  success  will  depend  largely 
upon  the  abundance  of  honey-secreting  plants  in  the  vicinity 
of  his  apiary.     True  it  is  that  certain  bark  and  plant  lice 


Fig.  196. 
2 


3 


y  f 


Tulip-Tree  Bark-Louse,  3,  4,  5,  and  6,  Greatly  Magnified.— Original, 

2  Underside  of  scale. 
6  Leg. 


1      Scale  on  Twig. 
3,  4  Young  Lice. 
5      Antenna. 


secrete  a  kind  of  liquid  sweet,  which,  in  the  dearth  of  any- 
thing better,  the  bees  seem  glad  to  appropriate.  I  have  thus 
seen  the  bees  thick  about  a  large  bark-louse  which  attacks  the 
tulip-tree,  and  thus  often  destroys  one  of  our  best  honey-trees. 
I  have  described  this  insect  (Fig.  1%)  under  the  name  of 


390  THB  bek-kkepkr's  guide; 

L/ecanium  tulipifera.  In  1870  it  did  no  small  injury  to  our 
tulip-trees  at  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College.  It  has  seri- 
ously injured  this  tree  in  the  States  bordering  the  Ohio  River. 
The  tulip  is  often  called  poplar,  which  is  quite  incorrect.  The 
poplar  belongs  to  the  willow  family,  the  tulip  to  the  magnolia. 
This  louse  is  of  double  interest  to  bee-keepers.  It  ruins  one  of 
our  best  honey-trees,  and  supplies  a  poor  substitute  for  plant 
nectar  to  the  bees.  All  bark-lice,  which  include  the  orange- 
tree  scale  and  the  San  Jose  scale,  are  best  destroyed  by  use  of 
kerosene  oil.  This  latter  is  best  applied  in  the  form  of  an 
emulsion,  with  soap.  To  make  the  kerosene  and  soap  emulsion 
I  make  a  very  strong  suds,  using  one-eighth  of  a  pound  of 
whale-oil  soap,  or  one  quart  of  soft  soap,  and  two  quarts  of 
water.  To  this  is  added  one  quart  of  kerosene  oil,  and  all 
churned  by  use  of  a  force-pump,  pumping  it  back  into  itself  till 
it  is  thoroughly  and  permanently  mixed.  I  then  dilute  with 
water  till  the  kerosene  oil  forms  one-twelfth  of  the  whole.  In 
California  it  is  found  that  a  distillate  emulsion  is  more 
efifective  than  kerosene  emulsion.  One- fourth  pound  of  whale- 
oil  soap  is  dissolved  in  one  gallon  of  water.  Then  one  gallon 
of  untreated  distillate  is  added  and  all  is  violently  stirred. 
This  is  then  diluted  with  water  one  to  ten.  It  is  cheap  and 
effective.  It  is  found  that  spraying  can  not  be  done  thor- 
oughly enough  for  evergreens  like  the  orange-tree,  and  so 
fumigation  by  aid  of  tents  with  cyanide  of  potassium  is 
adopted  by  most  of  the  progressive  citrus  fruit-men  of  Cali- 
fornia.   This  emulsion  often  spots  the  fruit. 

I  have  also  seen  the  bees  thick  about  several  species  of 
plant-lice.  One — the  Erisoma  imbricator.  Fitch— works  on 
beech-tree.  Its  abdomen  is  thickly  covered  with  long  wool, 
and  it  makes  a  comical  show  as  it  wags  this  up  and  down  upon 
the  least  disturbance.  The  leaves  of  trees  attacked  by  this 
louse,  as  also  those  beneath  the  trees,  are  fairly  gummed  with 
a  sweetish  substance.  I  have  found  that  the  bees  avoid  this 
substance,  except  at  times  of  extreme  drouth  and  long-pro- 
tracted absence  of  honeyed  bloom. 

Another  species,  Thalaxes  ulmicola,  gives  rise  to  certain 
solitary  galls,  which  appear  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves 
of  the  red  elm.    These  galls  are  hollow,  with  a  thin  skin,  aud 


OR,  MANUAI,   OF   THE   APIARY. 


391 


within  the  hollows  are  the  lice,  which  secrete  an  abundant 
sweet  that  often  attracts  the  bees  to  a  feast  of  fat  things,  as 
the  gall  is  torn  apart,  or  cracks  open,  so  that  the  sweet  exudes. 
This  sweet  is  anything  but  disagreeable,  and   may  not  be  un- 

FiG.  197. 


Female.  Male. 

Sycamore  Plant-Louse,  much  enlarged. — Origijial. 

Fig.  198. 


Female.  Male. 

Apple- Tree  Aphis,  much  maguifled. — Original. 

wholesome  to  the  bees.  The  larch-louse,  Lachnus  laricis, 
secretes  a  liquid  that  is  greedily  taken  by  the  bees.  The  honey 
is  very  excellent. 

Another  of    the  aphides,  of  a  black  hue,   works  on  the 


392  THK  BEE-KKEPBR'S  GUIDE  ; 

branches  of  our  willows,  which  they  often  entirely  cover,  and 
thus  greatly  damage  another  tree  valuable  for  both  honey  and 
pollen.  Were  it  not  that  they  are  seldom  numerous  two  years 
in  succession,  they  would  certainly  banish  from  among  us  one 
of  our  most  ornamental  and  valuable  honey-producing  trees. 
These  are  fairly  thronged  in  September  and  October,  and  not 
infrequently  in  spring  and  summer,  if  the  lice  are  abundant, 
by  bees,  wasps,  ants,  and  various  two-winged  flies,  all  eager 
to  lap  up  the  oozing  sweets.  This  louse  is  the  Lachnus  den- 
tatus  of  Le  Baron,  and  the  Aphis  salicti  of  Harris. 

I  have  received  from  apiarists  of  Indiana  and  Ohio  a  large, 
dark-gray  plant-louse,  which  worked  on  the  sycamore,  and  is 
reported  from  both  States  as  keeping  the  bees  actively  em- 
ployed for  some  weeks.  This  louse  is  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
long.  The  winged  lice  measure  three-eighths  of  an  inch  to 
the  tips  of  their  wings.  The  veins  of  the  wings,  as  also  the 
short  nectaries — the  tubes  at  the  posterior  part  of  the  abdomen 
— show  that  this  louse  (Fig.  197)  belongs  to  the  genus Lachnus. 
The  lice  of  the  genus  Aphis — of  which  there  are  innumerable 
species — have  longer  nectaries  (Fig.  198),  from  which  ooze 
large  drops  of  nectar.  This  is  much  relished  by  the  ants, 
which  often  care  for  these  lice  as  tenderly  as  for  their  own 
young. 

Doubtless  many  have  supposed  that  the  bees  were  gather- 
ing secretion  from  the  plants,  when  closer  inspection  would 
have  shown  that  some  species  of  plant-lice  was  wholly  re- 
sponsible. Honey-dew  may  not  always  be  a  secretion  from 
insects  ;  but  that  it  is  almost  always  is  certainly  true.  We 
can  see  how  it  serves  the  insects.  It  attracts  the  bees  and 
wasps,  which  repel  the  birds,  which  else  would  devour  the 
insects.  If  plants  do  secrete  nectar  (?)  from  their  leaves,  it 
surely  serves  them  some  valuable  purpose.  It  would  seem,  in 
attracting  the  black  fungus — smut— that  it  harmed  the  foliage. 
Is  hone3--dew  ever  a  product  of  the  foliage  ?  This  nectar  from 
plant-lice  is  very  often  entirely  wholesome  and  unobjection- 
able. I  would,  however,  never  consider  it  a  safe  food  for  bees 
in  winter,  unless  it  was  agreeable  to  my  taste,  and  fit  for  my 
own  table. 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF   THE  APIARY. 


393 


RKAIv    HONBY-DEW. 

Many  plants,  like  the  cotton  and  cow-pea  (Fig-.  199)  of  the 
South,  have  extra  floral-glands  which  secrete  nectar.  In  case 
of  the  cow-pea  these  glands  are  on  the  peduncles  or  flower- 

FiG.  199. 


a,  a  Glands. 


Cow-Pea — Original, 
b  Flower. 


stems,  just  at  the  base  of  the  flowers  (Fig.  199,  a,  a).  Prof. 
Trelese  thinks  that  this  nectar  serves  the  plant  by  attracting 
bees,  wasps,  etc.,  which  keep  injurious  insects  from  attacking 


394  THE  BEE-KEEPBR'S  GUIDE; 

it.  If  honey-dew  Is  secreted  from  the  general  foliage,  as  so 
many  believe,  then  surely,  as  stated  above,  it  serves  the  plants 
in  some  such  way. 

SWEET  SAP  AND  JUICES. 

Bees  often  gather  much  nectar  from  the  stubble  of  wheat 
that  is  cut  early,  while  the  straw  is  yet  green.  The  sap  from 
the  maple  and  other  trees  and  plants  also  furnishes  them 
sweets.  They  gather  juices  of  questionable  repute  from  about 
cider-mills,  some  from  grapes  and  other  fruit  which  have  been 
crushed  or  eaten  and  torn  by  wasps  and  other  insects.  Bees 
in  gathering  from  cider-mills  annoy  the  cider-maker,  and 
store  a  product  unfit  for  winter  use.  They  are  also  often 
drowned  in  great  numbers.  It  is  wise,  then,  to  screen  them 
from  the  room  where  the  juice  is  being  expressed.  By  use  of 
mosquito-netting  this  may  be  quickly  and  cheaply  done.  That 
bees  ever  tear  grapes  or  other  fruit  is  a  question  of  which  I 
have  failed  to  receive  any  personal  proof,  though  for  years  I 
have  been  carefully  seeking  it.  I  have  lived  among  the  vine- 
yards of  California,  and  have  often  watched  bees  about  vines 
in  Michigan,  but  never  saw  bees  tear  open  the  grapes.  I  have 
laid  crushed  grapes  in  the  apiary,  when  the  bees  were  not 
gathering,  and  when  they  were  ravenous  for  stores,  which, 
when  covered  with  sipping  bees,  were  replaced  with  sound 
grape-clusters,  which,  in  no  instance,  were  mutilated.  I  have 
even  shut  bees  in  empty  hives  on  warm  days  and  closed  the 
entrance  with  grape-clusters,  which  even  then  were  not  cut. 
I  have  thus  been  led  to  doubt  if  bees  ever  attack  sound  fruit, 
though  quick  to  improve  the  opportunities  which  the  oriole's 
beak  and  the  stronger  jaws  of  wasps  offer  them.  Mr.  Root 
finds  that  the  Cape  May  warbler  is  even  more  ready  than  the 
oriole  to  pierce  the  grapes.  Such  habit  is  exceptional  with 
the  warblers,  which  are  usually  wholly  insectivorous.  _My 
friend,  Prof.  Prentiss,  suggests  that  when  the  weather  is  very 
warm  and  damp,  and  the  grapes  very  ripe,  the  juice  may  ooze 
through  small  openings  of  the  grapes  and  so  attract  the  bees. 
It  is  at  just  such  times  that  attacks  are  observed..  I  feel  very 
certain  that  bees  never  attack  sound  grapes.  I  judge  not  only 
from  observation  and  inquiry,  but  from  the  habits  of  the  bee. 


OR,   MANUAL  OF"  THE  APIARY. 


395 


Bees  never  bore  for  nectar,  but  seek,  or  even  know  only  of  that 
which  is  fully  exposed.  Bees  are,  however,  a  tremendous  aid 
to  the  fruit-grower  in  the  great  work  of  cross-pollination, 
which  is  imperatively  necessary  to  his  success,  as  has  been  so 
well  shown  by  Dr.  Asa  Gray  and  Mr.  Chas.  Darwin.  It  is  true 
that  cross-pollination  of  the  flowers,  which  can  only  be 
accomplished  by  insects,  and  early  in  the  season  by  the  honey- 
bee, is  often,  if  not  always,  necessary  to  a  full  yield  of  fruit 
and  vegetables.  In  dioecious  plants,  like  the  willows  and 
many  nut-bearing  trees,  the  stamens  that  bear  the  pollen  or 
male  element,  are  on   one  plant  or  flower  (Fig.  202),  and  the 

Fig.  200. 


Blossoms  of  Figwort,  after  Gray. 


A  Developed  stamens  and  pollen. 

<S'  In  right-hand  flower  unripe  stifrma. 

n  Nectar. 


S  In  two  left-hand  flowers  ripe 

stigrma. 
J'  Unripe  stamens. 


pistils  that  grow  the  ovules—the  female  element — on  another. 
Here,  then,  insects  must  act  as  "marriage  priests"  that 
fructification  may  be  accomplished  at  all.  In  other  plants, 
where  the  organs  are  all  in  the  same  flower,  pollination  is 
wholly  dependent  upon  insects.  The  pollen-grains  must  reach 
the  stigma.  Often  this  is,  from  the  very  structure  of  the 
flower,  entirely  dependent  upon  insects.  Often,  as  in  the 
willow-herb  (Fig.  252)  and  figwort  (Fig.  200),  as  my  colleague 
and  esteemed  friend.  Dr.  Beal,  was  first  to  discover,  the 
pollen  and  stigma  are  not  ripe  simultaneously,  and  so  pollen 


396  THE  bee-keepkr's  guide  ; 

must  be  brought  from  one  flower  to  the  stig-ma  of  another,  and 
this  must  be  done  by  insects — chiefly  bees.  Nature  thus 
makes  close  pollination  impossible.  Indeed,  color  and  odor 
in  flowers  are  solely  to  attract  insects  for  the  good  of  the 
flowers.  In  cases  like  red  clover,  where  pollination  is  pos- 
sible without  aid,  my  colleague,  Prof.  Beal,  has  shown  that, 
unless  insects  are  present,  the  yield  of  seed  is  meager  indeed. 
The  seeds  in  the  uncovered  blossoms  were  to  those  in  the 
covered  as  236:5.  Prof.  Waite,  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, has  shown  that  many  varieties  of  pears,  apples,  etc., 
will  fruit  very  scantily  unless  cross-pollinated  by  insects.  I 
have  proved  the  same  in  California  with  pears,  plums,  olives, 
and  citrus  fruits.  The  navel  orange  is  an  exception.  It  fruits 
just  as  fully  without  pollination,  and  so,  of  course,  is  usually 
seedless.  It  bears  no  pollen.  Thus  many  fruit-growers  keep 
bees  to  do  this  very  important  work,  which  they  find  they  can 
not  afford  to  neglect.  I  suspect  in  very  f avoriJJ)le  years,  or  in 
very  favored  localities,  fruits  like  the  Bartlett  pear  may  be  fer- 
tile to  their  own  pollen,  when  at  other  times  they  will  be 
wholly  sterile.  The  fruit-men,  then,  must  see  that  bees  are 
abundant  hard  by  their  orchards.  There  is  then  entire  reci- 
procity between  the  bees  and  flowers.  The  bees  are  as  neces- 
sary to  the  plants  as  are  the  plants  to  the  bees.  I  am  informed 
by  Prof.  W.  W.  Tracy,  that  the  gardeners  in  the  vicinity  of 
Boston  keep  bees  that  they  may  perform  this  duty.  Mr.  Root 
found  in  New  York  a  greenhouse,  where  bees  were  kept  at 
work  all  winter,  to  save  the  otherwise  necessary  hand-pollina- 
tion, which  was  very  laborious  and  expensive.  That  bees 
ever  injure  blossoms  and  thus  effect  damage  to  the  fruitage  of 
such  plants  as  buckwheat — or  to  any  plants,  as  is  sometimes 
claimed — is  utterly  absurd  and  without  foundation.  It  is  now 
contended  by  able  authorities,  like  Profs.  Waite  and  Pierce, 
that  bees  carry  the  germs  of  pear-blight.  Very  likely  this  is 
true.  Yet  other  insects  are  sufi&ciently  abundant  to  do  this, 
and  yet  too  few  to  do  the  work  of  pollination.  A  few  inocula- 
tions will  scatter  the  blight,  while  pollination  must  be  done  in 
wholesale  fashion. 

But  the  principal  source  of  honey  is  still  from  the  flowers. 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THB  APIARY.  397 

WHAT  ARE  THE  VALUABLE  HONEY-PLANTS  ? 

In  the  northeastern  part  of  our  country  the  chief  reliance, 
for  May,  is  the  fruit-blossoms,  willows,  and  sugar  maples.  In 
June,  white  clover,  alsike  clover,  and  raspberries  yield  largely 
of  the  most  attractive  honey,  both  as  to  appearance  and 
flavor.  In  July,  the  incomparable  basswood  and  sweet  clover 
make  both  bees  and  apiarist  jubilant.  In  August,  buckwheat 
offers  a  tribute,  which  we  welcome,  though  it  be  dark  and 
pungent  in  flavor,  while  in  Michigan,  August  and  September 
give  a  profusion  of  bloom  which  yields  to  no  other  in  the  rich- 
ness of  its  capacity  to  secrete  nectar,  and  is  not  cut  off  till  the 
autumn  frosts— usually  abort  Sept.  IS. 

Thousands  of  acres  of  willow-herb  (Fig.  252),  goldenrod, 
boneset,  asters,  and  other  autumn  flowers  of  northern  Michi- 
gan as  yet  have  blushed  unseen,  with  fragrance  wasted.  This 
unoccupied  territory,  unsurpassed  in  its  capability  for  fruit- 
production,  covered  with  grand  forests  of  maple  and  basswood, 
and  spread  with  the  richest  of  autumn  bloom,  offers  oppor- 
tunities to  the  practical  apiarist  rarely  equaled  except  in  Texas 
and  the  Pacific  States. 

In  the  following  table  will  be  found  a  list  of  valuable 
honey-plants.  Those  mentioned  first  are  annual,  biennial 
or  perennial ;  the  annual  being  enclosed  in  a  parenthesis  thus : 
( ) ;  the  biennial  enclosed  in  brackets  thus  :  [  ]  ;  while  those 
mentioned  later  are  shrubs  or  trees  ;  the  names  of  shrubs 
being  enclosed  in  a  parenthesis.  The  date  of  the  commence- 
ment of  bloom  is,  of  course,  not  invariable.  The  one  appended, 
in  case  of  plants  which  grow  in  that  State,  is  about  average 
for  Central  Michigan.  Those  plants  whose  names  appear  in 
small  capitals  yield  very  superior  honey.  Those  with  (a)  are 
useful  for  other  purposes  than  honey-secretion.  All  but  those 
with  a  *  are  native  or  very  common  in  Michigan.  Those 
written  in  the  plural  refer  to  more  than  one  species.  Those 
followed  by  a  t  are  very  numerous  in  species.  Of  course  I 
have  not  named  all,  as  that  would  include  some  hundreds 
which  have  been  observed  at  the  college,  taking  nearly  all  of 
the  two  great  orders,  Compositaae  and  Rosaceae.  I  have  only 
aimed  to  give  the  most  important,  omitting  many  foreign 
plants  of  notoriety,  as  I  have  had  no  personal  knowledge  of  them. 


HERBACEOUS  HONEY-PI,ANTS,  TREES  AND  SHRUBS. 


DATE  OF  BLOOMING. 

February  to  July 

February  and  March . . 

March  to  fall 

April 

April 

April  and  May 

April  and  May 

April  and  May 

April  and  May 

May 

May  and  June 

May  and  June 

May  and  June 

May  and  June 

May  and  June 

May  and  June 

May  to  August 

May  to  AugTist 

May  to  fall 

June 

June 

June 

June 

June 

June  to  July 

June  to  July 

June  to  July 

June  to  July 

June  to  July 

June  to  July 

June  to  July 

June  to  July 

June  to  July 

June  to  July 

June  to  July 

June  to  August 

June  to  August 

June  to  August 

June  to  frost 

June  to  frost 

June  to  frost , 

June  to  frost , 

June  to  frost , 

June  to  frost 

June  to  frost , 

Junetofrost , 

June  to  frost , 

July 

July 

July  to  August 

July  to  August 


ANNUALS    AND    PERENNIALS. 

*Gilias— California— Blue  Pollen. 
*Gallberry— South. 

Alfalfa  OR  Lucerne  (a)— Calif.,  Colo. 

Skunk  Cabbage. 

Crocus. 

Dandelion. 

Crowfoot. 

Strawberry,  (a) 

Crimson  Clover  (a) — South — Not  California. 
(Seven-Top  Turnip.) 
*Hoarhound— California. 
*Suniac — California. 
*Colfee-Berry— California. 
*HoRSEMiNT — Texas. 

False  Indigo. 

Lupine. 

Ground  Ivy  or  Gill. 

Cow-Pea.  (rt) 
(Cow-Pea.)  (a)— South. 
*Stone  Crop— South. 

Mammoth  Red  Clover,  (a) 
♦California  Figwort— California. 
(Hemp.)  (a) 

Gumbo  or  Okra. 

White  Clover,  (a) 

Beans  (a)— California. 

Alsike  Clover,  (a) 

Red  Clover,  (a) 

Crimson  Clover,  (a) 
*  [Sweet  Clover.] 

Hoarhound. 

Ox-Eyed  Daisy— Bad  Weed, 

Bush  Honeysuckle. 
♦(Partridge  Pea.) 

Burdock— White  PoUen. 

Matrimony  Vine. 
*Sage. 

Motherwort. 
♦(Borage.) 
♦(Cotton.)   (a) 

Pleurisy  Root. 

Silk  or  Milk  Weeds. 
[Cabbage.]  (a) 
(Mustard)  t 
♦(Rape.)  (a) 

St.  John's  Wort. 
(Mignonette.)  (a) 
(Corn.)  (a) 
♦(Teasel.)  (a) 

Basils  or  Mountain  Mint. 

Catnip,  (a) 


OR,    MANUAI,   OF   THE   APIARY. 


399 


July  to  August 

July  to  August 

July  to  August 

July  to  August 

July  to  August 

July  to  August 

July  to  August 

July  to  August 

July  to  August 

July  to  frost 

July  to  frost 

July  to  frost 

July  to  frost 

July  to  frost 

July  to  frost 

July  to  frost 

July  to  frost 

July  to  frost 

July  to  frost 

July  to  frost 

August 

August 

August 

August 

August  to  September  .! 
August  to  September  . . . 
August  to  September  . . . 
August  to  September  . . , 

August  to  frost 

August  to  frost 

August  to  frost 

August  to  frost ." 

August  to  frost 

August  fo  frost ',,[ 

August  to  frost ." 


January  to  January. 
January  to  January. 

January  to  May 

January  to  May 

January  to  May 

January  to  May  ...'. 
February  to  June... 

March 

March ] ' 

April ." 

April 

April** 

April ;;■; 

April ' ' . ' 

April  and  May .. 

April  and  May 

April  and  May ...... 

April  to  June 

April  to  July 


Chamomile. 
♦Asparagus,  (a) 

(Cucumber,Squash,  Pumpkins,Melons,etc)  (a) 
*(Rocky  Mountain  Bee-Plant)— Colorado. 
*Viper's  Bugloss  (Blue  Thistle.) 
Blue  Vervain  or  Verbena. 
White  Vervain  or  Verbena. 
*rog-fruit,  Lippia— Texas. 
Marsh  Milkweed. 
Boneset. 
Bergamot. 
Chicory. 

Figwort  or  Carpenter's  Square. 
Giant  Hyssop. 
Malva. 
Ironweed. 
Fireweed. 
Culver's  Root. 
Indian  Plantains. 

*SPIDER   FLbwER. 

(Buckwheat.)  (»^ 
(Snapdragon.) 

(Touch-me-not  or  Swamp  Balsam.) 
(Great  Willow-Herb,  Fireweed. 
Golden  Honey-Plant. 
"Heartsease,   or  Smartweed,   or  Knotweed— 

Mississippi  Valley. 
Large  Smartweed. 

(GOLDENROD.)  f 

Asters,  t 

Marsh  Sunflower,  t 

Tick-Seed,  t 

Beggar-Ticks  or  Bur  Marigold,  t 

Spanish  Needles,  t    Coreopsis. 

Rattlesnake  Root  or  Tall  White  Lettuce. 

TREES  AND   SHRUBS. 

Lemon— South  and  California. 

Eucalyptus,  many  species— California. 
*Manzanita— California. 
*Rattan— South. 
*(Willow)  +— California. 
*Chaparall— California  Lilac. 
*(Gall  Berry)— South. 
*Orange— South  and  California. 

Madrona — California. 

Box-Elder  or  Ash-Leaf  Maple. 

Red  or  Soft  Maple,  (a) 

Elm. 

Poplar  or  Aspen. 

Silver  Maple. 
(Willows)  +  also  Trees. 
*Black  Gum— South. 
*Judas  Tree— South. 
(Chinkapin,  Chinquapin  Dwarf  Chestnut  ) 

Mesquite— Texas  and  West, 


400 


THE  BEE-KBKPBR'S  guide 


April  to  July 

April  to  July 

April  to  July 

April  to  July 

May 

May 

May 

May 

May 

May 

May 

May 

May 

May 

May 

May 

May 

May , 

May 

May 

May 

May 

May 

May  and  June 

May  and  June 

May  and  June 

May  and  June . . . . , 

May  and  June 

May  and  June. 

May  and  June 

May  and  June 

May  to  September 

May  to  September  . . . . , 

June 

June '. , 

June 

June 

June 

June 

June 

June  to  July 

June  to  July 

June  to  July 

June  to  frost 

July 

July 

July 

June  and  July 

July 

July 

July  to  August 

July  to  September 

August 

August  to  September  . . 
August  to  September  . 

August  to  frost 

August  to  December. . 
August  to  January 


*White  Sage— California. 

*Baxl,  Black,  or  Button  Sagb.— California. 

♦Rhododendron— South  and  West. 

Honeysuckle. 

(Shadbush,  or  June-berry,  or  Service-berry.) 
(Alder.) 

Maples — Sugar  Maple,  (a) 

Crab-Apple. 

Apricot. 
(Hawthorns.) 

Fruit  Trees— Apple,Plum,Cherry,Pear,etc(o", 
(Currant  and  Gooseberry,  (a) 
*(Wistaria  Vine— South.) 
*  (Chinese  Wistaria  Vine— South). 
*(Japan  Privet— South.) 
*Varnish  Tree— South. 
*Acacia— South  and  California. 
(Bladder  Nut.) 
♦Persimmon  (a)— South. 
*Saw  Palmetto — South. 

Mountain  Laurel- South. 

Buckeye. 

Horse-Chestnut. 
(Barberry.) 
(Grapevine.)  (a) 

Poplar,  Tulip. 

Tulip-tree  orWhitewood,  Poplar— South. 
(Sumac.) 

♦Buckthorns- South.  California  Feb.  to  July. 
♦Black  Mangrove— Florida. 

Locust  or  Black  Locust. 
♦Banana— South. 

Cobcea  scandens.    Vine. 

Catalpa. 
♦Magnolias — South.    California. 

Honey-Lucust. 

Wild  Plum. 
(Black  Raspberry.)  (a) 

Locusts. 

(Red  Raspberry.)  (a) 
(Blackberry.) 

Chestnut,  (a) 
♦Sourwood — South. 

Wild  Buckwheat— California. 
(Button  Bush.) 

Basswood.  (a) 

(Virginia  Creeper.)  (a)  Vine. 
♦Cabbage  Palmetto.— South. 
♦Blue-Gum — California. 

Catalpa.  (a) 
♦Pepper-tree — California. 
♦(St.  John's  Worts.) 
(Late  Sumac.) 

Indian  Currant,  Coralberry,  or  Buckbush, 
or  Snowdrop. 
♦Red-G  um — Calif  orn  ia. 
♦Japan  Plum — South. 
(Germander  or  Wood-Sage.) 


OR,    MANDAI,  OF  THE  APIARY.  401 


DESCRIPTION,   WITH   PRACTICAL   REMARKS. 

As  this  subject  of  bee-pasturage  is  of  such  prime  impor- 
tance, and  as  the  interest  in  the  subject  is  so  great  and  wide- 
spread, I  feel  that  details  with  illustrations  will  be  more  than 
warranted. 

We  have  abundant  experience  to  show  that  forty  or  fifty 
colonies  of  bees,  take  the  seasons  as  they  average  (except  in 
such  very  highly-favored  localities  as  Southern  California, 
where  in  good  seasons  two  or  three  hundred  are  profitably 
kept  in  a  single  apiary,  even  six  hundred  having  been  proved 
in  the  best  seasons  to  do  well),  are  all  that  a  single  place  will 
sustain  to  the  greatest  advantage.  Then  how  significant  the 
fact  that  when  the  season  is  the  best  full  three  times  that 
number  of  colonies  will  find  ample  resources  to  keep  all 
employed.  So  this  subject  of  artificial  pasturage  becomes 
one  well  worthy  of  close  study  and  observation.  The  subject, 
too,  is  a  very  important  one  in  reference  to  the  location  of  the 
apiary. 

It  is  well  to  remember  in  this  connection,  that  while  bees 
do  sometimes  go  from  five  to  seven  miles  for  nectar,  two  or 
three  miles  should  be  regarded  as  the  limit  of  profitable  gath- 
ering. That  is,  apiaries  of  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  or  more 
colonies  should!  not  be  nearer  than  four  or  five  miles  of  each 
other. 

MARCH  PLANTS. 

In  Florida  the  orange  gives  early  bloom,  and  the  thou- 
sands of  trees  4p  that  land,  not  only  of  flowers  but  of  honey, 
will  have  no  small  influence  in  building  up  the  colonies  for 
the  grand  harvest  of  mangrove  and  palmetto  soon  to  follow. 

The  gall-berry  of  the  South  commences  to  bloom  even  in 
February,  and  yields  abundant  nectar.  Jn  Florida  this  shrub 
gives  the  main  supply  of  honey  during  the  swarming  season. 

APRIL    PLANTS. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  the  apiarist  does  not  secure  the 
best  results,  even  in  the  early  spring,  unless  the  bees  are 
encouraged  by  the  increase  of  their  stores  of  pollen  and  honey  ; 
hence,  in  case  we  do  not  practice  stimulative  feeding — and 


403 


THK  BKEKEKPER'S  GUIDE; 


many  will  not— it  becomes  very  desirable  to  have  some  early 
bloom.  Happily,  in  all  sections  of  the  United  States  our 
desires  are  not  in  vain. 

Early  in  spring  there  are  many  scattering  wild-flowers,  as 
skunk-cabbage  (Symplocarpus  foetidus),  which  supplies  abun- 
dant pollen  and  some  honey ;  the  blood-root  (Sanguinaria 
canadensis),  liver-leaf  (Hepatica  acutiloba),  and  various  others 

Fig.  201. 


Red  M(tple. — Original. 

M  Male  blossoms.  F  Female  blossoms. 

Ji^  Fruit. 

of  the  crow -foot  family,  as  also  many  species  of  cress,  which 
belong  to  the  mustard  family,  and  the  gay  dandelion  (Taraxa- 
cum dens-leonis),  which  keeps  on  blooming  for  weeks,  etc.,  all 
of  which  are  valuable  and  important.  The  dandelion  affords 
nectar  for  excellent  honey.  Were  it  not  so  concurrent  with 
fruit-bloom,  it  would  be  more  valuable,  yet  it  anticipates  and 
succeeds  the  orchard  bloom. 

The  maples,  which  are  all  valuable  honey-plants,  also  con- 


OR,   MANUAi  OF  THR  APIARY.  403 

tribute  to  the  early  stores.  Especially  valuable  are  the  silver 
maples  (Acer  dasycarpum),  the  red  or  soft  maples  (Acer 
rubrum)  (Fig.  201),  and  the  box-elder  or  ash-leaf  maple 
(Negundo  aceroides),  as  they  bloom  so  very  early,  long  before 
the  leaves  appear.  The  bees  work  on  these  in  Michigan  the 
first  week  of  April,  and  often  in  March.  They  are  also  mag- 
nificent shade-trees,  especially  those  that  have  the  weeping 
habit.    Their  early  bloom  is  very  pleasing,  their  summer  form 

Fig.  202. 


Willow. — Original. 

and  foliage  beautiful,  while  their  flaming  tints  in  autumn  are 
indescribable.  The  foreign  maples,  sycamore  (Acer  pseudo- 
platanus),  and  Norway  (Acer  platanoides),  are  also  very  beau- 
tiful. Whether  superior  to  ours  as  honey-plants  I  am  unable 
to  say. 

The  willows,  too  (Fig.  202),  rival  the  maples  in  the  early 
period  of  bloom.  Some  are  very  early,  blossoming  in  March, 
while  others,  like  the  white  willow  (Salix  alba)  (Fig.  202), 
bloom  in  May.  The  flowers  on  one  tree  or  bush  of  the  willow 
are  all  pistillate — that  is,  have  pistils  but  no  stamens— while 


404 


THE   BEK-KEEPER  S   GUIDE; 


on  others  they  are  all  stamidate,  having  no  pistils.  On  the 
former,  bees  can  gather  only  honey,  on  the  latter  only  pollen. 
That  the  willow  furnishes  both  honey  and  pollen  is  attested 
by  the  fact  that  I  saw  both  kinds  of  trees,  the  pistillate  and 
the  staminate,  thronged  with  bees  the  past  season.  Indeed, 
the  willow   furnishes  abundant  honey   nearly  every   spring. 

Fig.  203. 


JWesquite. — From  Dcpt.  of  Agriculture, 


Judas  Trte. — Original. 


Were  bees  numerous  thus  early,  and  were  the  weather  propi- 
tious, the  honey  from  willow  would  be  very  important.  It  is 
in  stimulating  breeding.  The  willow,  too,  from  its  elegant 
form  and  silvery  foliage,  is  one  of  our  finest  shade-trees.  It 
grows  everywhere  in  the  United  States.  The  mesquite  (Proso- 
pis  juliflora),  a  shrub  or  tree  of  the  bean  family  (Fig.  203),  is 
exceedingly  valuable  for  honey  from  Texas  to  Arizona.  The 
honey  is  excellent  in  quality  and  very  abundant.  It  blooms 
from  April  on  to  July. 

In  the  south  of  Michigan,  and  thence  southward  to  Ken- 
tucky, and  even  beyond,  the  Judas  tree,  or  red-bud  (Cercis 
canadensis),  (Fig.  204),  is  not  only  worthy  of  cultivation  as  a 


OR,    MANUAL.  OF  THE  APIARV. 


405 


honey-plant,  but  is  also  very  attractive,  and  well  deserving  of 
attention  for  its  ornamental  qualities  alone.  The  red  flowers 
precede  the  foliage,  and  are  very  striking.  This  blooms  from 
March  to  May,  according  to  the  latitude. 


Fig.  205 

1 

'• 

1 

j- 

1 

■/ 

A 

^ 

\\ 

-f" 

^^s 

!*»" 

i 

^ 

'*■:,'  ..jiffa^ 

m^  • 

1          ^^ 

^ 

^y^M^n 

i^A 

i- 

r~  ^MO^ilP^I^L 

1      -^JE 

M 

|0V|yl\ 

\ 

-...^ 

w* 

/ 

Eucalyptus  liobuata. — F}-om  Univer&iUj  of  California, 

The  poplars— not  the  tulip — also  bloom  in  April,  and  are 
freely  visited  by  the  bees.  The  wood  is  immaculate,  and  is 
used  for  toothpicks  and  sections  for  comb  honey. 

In  California,  the  unique  and  exquisite  Manzanitas  (spe- 


406 


THE  BBE-KEEPER'S  GUIDE  ; 


cies  of  Arctostaphylos),  together  with  the  willows  and  many 
other  flowering-  plants,  keep  the  bees  busy  from  January  till 
March.  The  Gilias,  many  of  which  furnish  blue  pollen,  bloom 
in  January  and  on  till  June.  The  wondrously  fragrant  orange 
and  lemon  hang  out  their  profuse  bloom  even  in  January,  and 
the  lemon  is  always  in  bloom.     Some  species  of  gum  eucalyp- 

FiG.  206. 


Pepper.— Original. 


tus  (Fig.  205)  is  in  bloom  nearly  every  month  of  the  year.  The 
beautiful  peppers  (Fig.  206),  so  exquisite  in  grace,  have  a  very 
wide  period  of  bloom.  The  eucalyptus  honey  is  agreeable,  as 
I  have  surely  proved.  I  think  the  pepper  only  furnishes  pollen 
extensively.  The  tree  is  dioecious.  The  female  trees  are  the 
more  attractive  for  the  red  fruit  of  winter.  They  are  tran- 
scendently  beautiful  for  roadside  planting,  as  are  many  of  the 
gums. 


Ok,    MANtjAt  O^  YSri  APlARV.  407 

MAY   PLANTS. 

In  May  we  have  the  grand  sugar  maple  (Acer  saccha- 
rinum),  (Fig.  207),  incomparable  for  beauty,  also  all  our  vari- 

FiG.  207. 


Sugar-Maple. — Original. 

ous  fruit-trees,  peach,  cherry,  plum,  apple,  etc.;  in  fact  all  the 
Rosaceae  family.  Despite  adverse  criticism,  I  have  found  fruit, 
honey  excellent.     Our  beautiful   American  wistaria  (Wistaria 


408  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

frutescens),  (Fig.  208),  the  very  ornamental  climber,  or  the 
still  more  lovely  Chinese  wistaria  (Wistaria  sinensis),  (Fig-. 
209),  which  has  longer  racemes  than  the  native,  and  often 
blossoms  twice  in  the  season.  These  are  the  woody  twiners 
for  the  apiarist.  I  regret  to  say  that  neither  one  is  hardy  in 
Michigan. 

The  barberry,  too  (Berberis  vulgaris),  (Fig.  210),  comes 
after  fruit-blossoms,  and  is  thronged  with  bees  in  search  of 
nectar  in  spring,  as  with  children  in  winter,  in  quest  of  the 
beautiful  scarlet  berries,  so  pleasingly  tart. 

Fig.  208. 


Americati,  Wistaria. — Original. 

In  California,  the  sumac,  the  hoarhound,  the  famous  ball 
or  black  sages  (Fig.  211),  (Ramona  stachyoidesand  R.  palmeri), 
with  their  most  beautiful  and  delicious  honey,  and  the  more 
common  and  equally  excellent  white  sage  (Ramona  poly- 
stachya),  (Fig.  212),  keep  the  bees  roaring  with  activity,  in 
favorable  seasons,  from  April  even  unto  June.  It  is  charac- 
teristic of  California  bloom  to  continue  for  weeks.  The  long 
racemes  of  white  sage  may  open  in  April  and  continue  in 
blossom  away  to  June. 

In  the  South,  as  I  learn  from  that  able  apiarist.  Dr.  J.  P. 


OR,  MANUAL   OF   THE   APIARY. 


409 


H.  Brown,  they  are  no  less  favored.  The  Japan  privet,  the 
varnish  tree,  the  acacia,  the  black-gum  or  sour-gum  (Nvssa 
aquatica),  and  the  persimmon  (Diospyros  virginiana)  stir  the 
bees  up  to  their  best  endeavor  in  May.  The  banana  (Musa 
sapientum)  blooms  not  only  in  May,  but,  as  Mr.  W.  S.  Hart, 
of  Florida,  writes  me,  it  is  in  blossom  the  year  around.  So 
rich  are  the  flower-tubes  in  nectar  that  Mr.  Hart  says  he  co«?c' 

Fig.  209. 


Fig.  210. 


Chinese  Wistaria. — Original. 


Barberry.— Origina  I. 


soon  gather  a  teacupful,  by  hand,  of  clear,  beautiful  nectar  of 
good  flavor.  Chinquapin  (Castanea  pumila)  is  an  excellent 
honey-plant  in  the  Carolinas. 

The  horse-mint  (Fig.  213),  (Monarda  aristata),  especially 
in  Texas,  is  sending  the  bees  loaded  to  their  hives  with  its 
peculiar,  aromatic  nectar.  This,  with  the  buckthorns,  species 
of  Rhamnus  and  Ceonothus,  yield  honey  into  June.  These 
plants  often  cover  acres  in  Wisconsin   and  Minnesota.     Mr. 


410  THK  BEK-KEEPER'S  GUIDE  ; 

Fig.  211. 


Ball  or  Black  Sage. — Original. 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THK   APIARY. 


411 


Freeborn,  of  Wisconsin,  has  uften  secured  a  large  harvest 
from  this  source  when  all  else  failed.  The  buckthorns  are 
very  common   in  California.     Some  of  the  blooms  are  delicate 

Fig.  212. 


White  Sage.— From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 

blue,  and  are  known  as  the  "California  lilacs."    They  are  in 
bloom — diflFerent  species — from  March  to  July. 

The  saw  palmetto (Serenoaserrulata)  forms  a  dense  growth 


412 


THB    BEE-KKEPER'S  GUIDE; 


and  makes  clearing'  the  land  no  small  expense  in  Florida.  The 
slim  trunk  creeps  along  the  ground  for  twenty  feet,  and  sends 
roots  beneath  for  nourishment.  The  leaves  arise  from  this 
stem,  and  are  from  four  to  six  feet  long.     The  clusters  of 

Fig.  213. 


Horsemint. — Original. 


small,  yellowish-white  blossoms  are  immense  in  size.  The 
blossoms  last  from  the  middle  of  April  till  June.  The  honey 
is  yellow,  thick  and  fine.  The  fruit  of  this  palm  is.  about 
twice  the  size  of  the  Concord  grape,  and  from  October  till 
Christmas  the  oozing   nectar  keeps  the  bees  at  work.  .This  is 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY. 


412 


dark  honey,  but  very  good  for  stimulative  feeding.  The  date- 
palms  (species  of  Phoenix),  and  many  others,  grow  magnifi- 
cently in  California,  and  are  valuable  aids  to  the  bee-keeper. 
The  growing  of  date-palms  promises  a  rich  harvest  in  Califor- 
nia and  Arizona. 

JUNE   PLANTS. 

With  June  comes  the  incomparable  white  or  Dutch  clover 
(Trifolium  repens),  (Fig.  214),  whose  chaste  and  modest  bloom 
betokens  the  beautiful,  luscious,  and  unrivaled  sweets  which 

Fig.  214. 


White  or  Dutch  Clover. 


are  hidden  in  its  corolla-tube  ;  also  its  sister,  Alsike  or  Swedish 
clover  (Trifolium  hybridum),  (Fig.  215),  which  seems  to 
resemble  both  the  white  and  red  clover,  is  now  beautiful  and 
fragrant.  This  is  not  a  hybrid,  as  its  name  would  suggest. 
It  is  a  stronger  grower  than  the  white,  and  has  a  whitish 
blossom  tinged  with  pink.  Mr.  Doolittle  says  the  honey  is 
often  a  little  off-color,  and  its  presence  may  so  tinge  basswood 
honey  as  to  make  it  second  grade.  Messrs.  Doolittle  and  Root 
think  that  white  clover  furnishes  about  fifty  pounds  of  honey 
to  the  acre  during  the  season.  I  am  sure  that  Alsike  may 
furnish  much  more  than  this,  and  I  believe  the  same  is  true  of 


414 


THB  bek-keeper's  guide; 
Fig.  215. 


Alsike  Clover. — From  American  See  Journal, 


THE  BSB-KSEPER'S  GUIDE  ;  *** 

white.  This  forms  excellent  pasture  and  hay  for  cattle, 
sheep,  etc.,  and  may  well  be  sown  by  the  apiarist.  When  pas- 
tured the  bloom  is  much  prolonged.  It  will  often  pay  apiarists 
to  furnish  neighboring  farmers  with  seed  as  an  inducement  to 
grow  this  excellent  honey-plant.  It  will  be  easy  to  get  all 
farmers  within  two  miles  of  the  apiary  to  sow  this  seed,  if  we 
sell  it  to  them  for  six  dollars  per  bushel  of  sixty  pounds,  when 
the  price  is  eight  or  nine  dollars.    This  would  be  a  wise  plan. 

Fig.  216. 


Mammoth  lied  CIwer.—From  A.  I.  Root  Co 


Like  white  clover,  it  blooms  all  through  June  and 
into  July.  Both  of  these  should  be  sown  early  in  spring  with 
timothy,  four  or  five  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre,  in  the  same 
manner  that  red  clover  seed  is  sown.  As  Alsike  seeds  itself 
each  year,  and  so  lasts  much  longer  than  red  clover,  I  think  it 
pays  well  to  mix  the  seed,  using  about  three  pounds  of  Alsike 
clover  seed  and  five  or  six  of  red  clover.  As  Alsike  clover  is 
visited  freely  by  honey-bees  the  first  growth  of  the  season, 
unlike  red  clover,  it  seeds  bountifully.  By  cutting  Alsike  clover 


Fig.  217. 
Crimson  Clover. — From  A.  I.  Hoot  Co. 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY.  417 

just  as  it  commences  to  bloom,  it  may  be  made  to  come  into 
blossom  the  second  time,  so  as  just  to  fill  the  vacant  space  in, 
August.  This  is  a  very  important  fact,  and  may  well  be 
acted  upon.  I  have  known  Alsike  clover  to  give  a  good  harvest 
of  nectar  during  a  dry'  year,  when  white  clover  utterly  failed. 
Red  clover  (Trifolium  pretense),  especially  mammoth  (Fig. 
216),  is  a  wondrous  honey-plant,  but  its  long  flower-tubes 
place  the  nectar  beyond  the  reach  of  black  bees,  and  of  most 

Fig.  218. 


Melilot  Clover. — Original. 

Italians.  Can  we  breed  longer  tongues  in  our  bees,  or  shorter 
tubes  in  the  clover  ?  I  see  no  reason  why  we  may  not  do  both. 
Crimson  clover  (Trifolium  incarnatum),  (Fig.  217),  is  popular 
in  some  sections.  It  is  a  failure  in  Southern  California.  The 
blossoms  are  large  and  fine,  and  they  are  visited  freely  by  the 
bees.  It  is  used  in  the  East  and  South  for  green  manuring.  I 
do  not  think  it  will  compare  with  white  or  Alsike  clover  as  a 
honey-plant. 

Sweet  clover,  yellow  and  white  (Melilotus  officinalis  and 
Melilotus  alba),  (Fig.  218),  are  well  named.  They  bloom  from 
the  middle  of  June  to  the  first  of    October.    Their  perfume 


418 


THE  BBE-KKEPER  S  GUIDE": 


scents  the  air  for  long  distances,  and  the  hum  of  bees  that 
throng  their  flowers  is  like  music  to  the  apiarist's  ear.  The 
honey,  too,  is  just  exquisite.    These  clovers  are  biennial,  not 

Fig.  219. 


Alfalfa  Horiey-rhiul.—From  A.  I.  Hoot  Co. 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF  THB   APIARY. 


419 


Fig.  220. 


Alfalfa.— From  A.  I.  Hoot  Co. 

blooming  the  second  season.  They  perpetuate  themselves, 
however,  through  the  seed,  so  as  really  to  become  perennial. 
A  disagreeable  fact  is  that  they  have  little  value  except  for 


420 


THE  BKK-KKEPER  S  GUIDE; 


honey.  Some  bee-keepers  claim  to  have  found  them  valuable 
for  pasturage  and  for  hay.  I  have  wished  and  tried  to  use 
them,  but  my  horses  and  cow  would  not  co-operate.  The 
Bokhara  clover  is  only  a  variety  of  the  above. 


Fig. 


Affalfa  in  Bloom. 
rt,  b  Seed  pods. 


-From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 


cSeed. 


The  other  clovers— lucerne,  yellow  trefoil,  scarlet  trefoil, 
and  alfalfa— (Figs.  219,  220  and  221)  have  not  proved  of  any 
value  in  Michigan,  perhaps  owing  to  locality.  The  alfalfa  is 
valued  highly  for  bees  in  the  Western  States.  In  California, 
Nevada,  Arizona  and  Colorado  it  is  a  marvelous  plant  for  both 


OR,  MANUAI.  OF  THE  APIARY. 


421 


hay  and  honey.  Eight  cuttings  a  season  have  been  made, 
though  five  are  the  average  in  Southern  California.  A  yield 
of  three  tons  per  cutting  per  acre  is  not  exceptional.  The  hay 
is  the  very  best.  It  is  pre-eminently  a  crop  for  irrigation,  and 
so  is  not  stayed  by  the  drouth.  Bee-keepers  in  central  Cali- 
fornia and  Arizona  report  two  hundred  pounds  per  colony 
from  alfalfa,  even  with  very  large  apiaries.  While  most  prefer 
to  cut  before  it  is  in  full  bloom,  as  it  is  eaten  better,  yet  there 


Fig.  222. 


Fig.  223. 


Borage, — Original. 


Mignonette. 


is  always  much  bloom  where  it  is  grown  extensively.  It  is  a 
sure  honey-producer  in  the  famous  San  Joaquin  Valley  of 
California. 

Borage  (Borago  officinalis),  (Fig.  222),  an  excellent  bee- 
plant,  blooms  from  June  till  frost,  and  is  visited  by  bees  even 
in  very  rainy  weather.  It  seems  not  to  be  a  favorite,  but  is 
eagerly  visited  when  all  others  fail  to  yield  nectar. 

Mignonette  (Reseda  odorata),  (Fig.  223)  blooms  from  the 
middle  of  June  till  frost,  is  unparalleled  for  its  sweet  odor, 
furnishes  nectar  in  profusion,  and  is  well  worthy  cultivation. 
It  does  not  secrete  well  in  wet  weather,  but  in  favorable 


422 


THB  BKE-KEEPKR'S  GUIDE ; 


weather  it  is  hardly  equaled.  It  will  never  be  g-rown  in 
quantities  to  give  any  large  returns. 

Okra,  or  gumbo  (Hibiscus  esculentus),  (Fig.  224),  also 
blooms  in  June.  It  is  as  much  sought  after  by  the  bees  in 
quest  of  honey,  as  by  the  cook  in  search  of  a  savory  vegetable, 
or  one  to  give  tone  to  soup. 

Sage  (Salvia  oflficinalis),  hoarhound  (Marrubium  vulgare), 
motherwort  (Leonurus  cardiaca),  and  catnip  (Nepeta  cataria), 
which  latter  does  not  commence  to  bloom  till  July,  all  furnish 
nice,  white  honey,  remain  in  bloom  a  long  time,  and  are  very 


Fig.  224. 


Fig.  225. 


Okra. — Original, 


Mint. — Original. 


desirable,  as  they  are  in  bloom  in  the  honey-dearth  of  July 
and  August.  They,  like  many  others  of  the  mint  family  (Fig. 
225),  are  thronged  with  bees  during  the  season  of  bloom.  The 
first  and  last  are  of  commercial  importance,  while  very  few  of 
our  native  plants  afford  so  much  nectar,  are  such  favorites 
with  the  bees,  and  are  so  independent  of  weather  as  mother- 
wort (Fig.  226).  It  Is  crowded  with  bees  from  the  dawn  of  its 
bloom  till  the  last  flower  withers.  By  cutting  it  back  in  May 
it  can  be  made  to  blossom  just  at  the  dearth  of  nectar-secreting 
bloom  ;  otherwise  it  comes  in  June  and  early  July,  just  when 


OR    MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  423 

linden  is  jielding  its  precious  harvest.  Few  plants  are  more 
desirable  to  sow  in  waste-places.  Mr.  Doolittle  says  truly, 
"If  any  plant  will  pay  to  grow  solely  for  honey,  it  is  this 
one."    He  is  correct  in  the  opinion  that  none  will  pay. 

Fig.  226. 


Motherwort.— Original. 

The  silk  or  milkweed  furnishes  abundant  nectar  from 
June  to  frost,  as  there  are  several  species  of  the  genus  Asclep- 
ias,  which  is  wide-spread  in  our  country.  Indeed,  pleurisy- 
root  or  butterfly  weed  (Asclepias  tuberosa)  is  the  bee-plant 
that  Mr.  Heddon  has  praised  so  highly.     He  thinks  it  one  of 


424 


THB  BEE-KEBPKR'S  GUIDE; 


our  best  indigenous  honey-plants.  These  are  the  plants 
which  have  large  pollen-masses  which  often  adhere  to  the 
legs  of  the  bees  (Fig.  227),  and  sometimes  so  entrap  them  as  to 
cause  their  death.  Prof.  Riley  once  very  graciously  advised 
planting  them  to  kill  bees  I  I  say  graciously,  as  I  have 
watched  these  very  closely,  and  am  sure  they  do  little  harm, 
and  are  rich  in  nectar.  Seldom  a  bee  gets  caught  so  as  to  hold 
it  long,  and  when  these  awkward  masses  are  carried  away 
with  the  bee,  they  are  usually  left  at  the  door  of  the  hive, 

Fig.  228. 


Fig.  227. 


Pollen  of  Milk-  Weed  on  Bee^s  Foot. 
— Original. 


Black  Mustard. — Original. 


where  I  have  often  seen  them  in  considerable  numbers.  The 
river  bank,  hard  by  our  apiary,  is  lined  with  these  sweet- 
smelling  herbs,  and  we  would  like  even  more.  Occasionally, 
however,  the  bees  are  held  to  the  plant  by  them,  and  more 
often  become  so  burdened  with  these  pollen-masses  that  the 
other  bees  drag  or  drive  them  from  the  hive,  as  no  longer  fit 
for  labor  or  worthy  to  live.  Bees  are  veritable  Hottentots— 
they  kill,  though  they  do  not  eat  the  old  and  the  feeble. 

Black  mustard  (Sinapis  nigra),  (Fig.  228),  white  mustard 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THB  APIARY.  425 

(Sinapis  alba)  and  rape  (Brassica  campestris),  (Fig-.  229),  all 
look  much  alike— all  are  species  of  the  great  family  Cruciferae— 
and  are  all  admirable  bee-plants,  as  they  furnish  much  and 
beautiful  honey.  The  first,  if  self-sown,  blooms  in  Michigan 
July  1st,  the  others  June  1st ;  the  first  about  eight  weeks  after 
sowing,  the  others  three  or  four.  The  mustards  bloom  for 
four  weeks,  rape  for  three.  These  are  all  specially  commend- 
able, as  they  may  be  made  to  bloom  during  the  honey-dearth 
of  July  and  August,  secrete  honey  late  as  well  as  early  in 

Fig.  229. 


Eape. 

the  season,  and  are  valuable  plants  to  raise  for  seed.  The 
mjistards  were  grown  in  Southern  California  for  seed  during 
the  Civil  War,  and  have  run  wild  in  parts  of  San  Diego  County 
where  they  grow  very  extensively.  Though  the  hills  are 
yellow  with  this  plant  for  miles,  I  have  heard  no  special  com- 
mendation of  it  for  honey.  Very  likely  our  scant  rainfall  is 
not  favorable  for  nectar-secretion.  Rape  seems  to  be  very 
attractive  to  insects,  as  the  flea-beetles  and  the  blister-beetles 
are  often  quite  too  much  for  it,  though  they  do  not  usually 
destroy  the  plants  till  after  they  have  blossomed.     Rape  is 


426 


THE  bee-kbbpsr's  otttde; 


now  grown  extensively  in  Michigan  and  contiguous  States  for 
sheep,  etc.  It  pleases  the  stockmen  and  the  bee-keepers  alike. 
Three  pounds  per  acre  of  seed  is  the  amount  to  sow.    I  have 

Fig.  230. 


Tulip. — Original. 

several  times  purchased  what  purported  to  be  Chinese  mus- 
tard, dwarf  and  tall,  but  Prof.  Beal,  than  whom  there  is  no 
better  authority,  tells  me  they  are  only  the  white  and  black, 
and  certainly  they  are  no  whit  better  as  bee-plants.    These 


OR,   MANTTAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  427 

plants,  with  buckwheat,  the  mints,  borage  and  mignonette, 
are  specially  interesting,  as  they  cover,  or  may  be  made  to 
cover,  the  honey-dearth  from  about  July  20th  to  August  20th. 

The  mustards  may  be  planted  in  drills  about  eight  inches 
apart,  any  time  from  May  1st  to  July  15th.  Four  quarts  will 
plant  an  acre. 

In  this  month  (though  I  have  known  it  to  bloom  in  Michi- 
gan in  May,  while  South  it  blossoms   in  April)  blooms  the 

Fig.  231. 


Teasel. — Origina  I. 

tulip-tree  (I^iriodendron  tulipifera),  (Fig.  230)— often  called 
poplar  in  the  South,  which  is  not  only  an  excellent  honey- 
producer,  but  is  one  of  our  most  stately  and  admirable  shade- 
trees.  It  is  also  very  valuable  for  its  lumber,  which  is  known 
as  whitewood.  It  would  be  of  more  worth  did  it  not  shrink  so 
much.  Dr.  Brown,  of  Georgia,  says  this  is  the  great  depend- 
ence— the  basswood  of  the  South.  He  says  that  along  rivers 
especially  the  bloom  is  so  prolonged,  being  earlier  on  the  up- 
lands, that  the  harvest  is  long  as  bountiful.  Now  bloom  the 
sumacs,  though  one  species  blooms  in  May,  the  wild  plum,  the 
raspberries,  whose  nectar  is  unsurpassed  in  color  and  flavor, 
and  the  blackberry.     The  raspberry  is  specially  to  be  praised. 


428  THE  bkk-kbepkr's  guide  ; 

It  blooms  between  the  usual  fruit-blossoms  and  clover.  It 
yields  nectar  in  wet  weather,  which  most  plants  fail  to  do,  and 
the  honey  is  unexcelled.  Bees  sometimes  gather  the  juice 
from  very  ripe  raspberries.  This  colors  the  honey  red.  The 
blackberry  comes  quite  late,  some  days  after  the  raspberry.  I 
think  it  is  far  less  valuable  as  a  honey-plant.  Corn  yields 
largely  of  honey  as  well  as  pollen,  and  the  teasel  (Dipsacus 
fuUonum),  (Fig.  231),  is  said,  not  only  by  Mr.  Doolittle,  but  by 
English   and  German   apiarists,   to  yield  richly  of  beautiful 

Fig.  232. 


Common  Locust. — From  American  See  Journal. 

honey.  It  blossoms  at  the  same  time  with  basswood,  and  the 
honey  is  much  thinner  at  first.  This  last  has  commercial 
importance.  In  central  New  York  it  is  raised  in  large  quanti- 
ties. The  spinous  fruit-heads  are  used  in  preparing  woolen 
cloth.  Machinery  is  now  taking  the  place  of  teasel,  and  as  no 
plant  can  be  profitably  grown  for  honey  alone,  this  plant  will 
be  of  little  importance  in  the  future.  The  fragrant  locust 
(Robinia  pseudacacia),  (Fig.  232),  opens  its  petals  in  June 
opportunely,  for  it  comes  between  fruit-bloom  and  clover. 
Unfortunately,  it    furnishes   nectar    only  occasionally.    The 


OR,  MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  429 

honey  is  fine,  as  we  should  expect,  as  it  belongs  with  the 
Clovers,  to  the  great  family  of  lycguminosae.  From  its  rapid 
growth,  beautiful  form,  and  handsome  foliage,  it  would  rank 
among  our  first  shade-trees,  were  it  not  that  it  is  so  tardy  in 
spreading  its  canopy  of  green,  and  so  liable  to  ruinous  attack 
by  the  borers,  which  last  peculiarity  it  shares  with  the  incom- 

FlG.  233. 


Partridge  Pea. — Original. 

parable  maples.     Washing  the  trunks  of  the  trees  in  June  and 
July  with  soft  soap  will  in  great  part  remove  this  trouble. 

In  June,  mammoth  red  clover  (Trifolium  pratense),  (Fig.  216) 
comes  out  in  one  mass  of  crimson.  This,  unlike  common  red 
clover,  has  flower-tubes  short  enough  for  even  the  ligula  of  the 
black  bee.  It  is  pretty  coarse  for  hay,  but  excellent  for  pas- 
ture and  for  green  manuring.  The  partridge-pea  (Cassia 
chamaecrista),  (Fig.  233),  furnishes  abundant  nectar,  and,  like 


430  THE  BKE-KKEPHR'S  GUIDE  ; 

the  cow-pea  (Vigna  sinensis)  of  the  South,  (Fig.  199)  hafr  extra 
floral  as  well  as  floral  glands.  Lupine  (Lupin us  perennis)  and 
gill  or  ground-ivy  (Nepeta  glechoma)  began  blooming  in  May, 
and  now  are  fully  out.  This  last  is  a  mint,  a  near  relative  of 
catnip.  I  find  there  are  foreign  mints  which  are  excellent 
honey-plants,  and  very  likely  would  pay  well  to  sow  in  waste- 
places.  The  matrimony  vine  (Lycium  vulgare),  and  the  beau- 
tiful honey-locust  (Gleditschia  triacanthos),  (Fig.  234)  are  now 
Fig.  234. 


Honey-Locust. — From  American  Bee  Journal. 

full  of  life,  as  the  bees  come  and  go  full-loaded  with  nectar. 
In  California,  the  figwort  (Scrophularia  californica)  contributes 
to  the  honey-supply.  The  wild  buckwheat  (Fig.  235)  blooms 
profusely  in  all  parts  of  Southern  California  from  June  to 
frost.  It  yields  much  amber  honey  of  excellent  quality, 
though  from  its  color  it  is  second  grade.  Next  to  the  sages  it 
is  the  best  wild  honey-plant  of  the  section.  Our  brothers  of 
the  South  reap  a  rich  harvest  from  the  great  staple,  cotton 


OR,   MANUAI.  OF  THE  APIARY. 


431 


(Gossypium  herbaceum).  (Fig.  236),  which  commences  to  bloom 
early  in  June,  and  remains  in  blossom  even  to  October.  This 
belongs  to  the  same  family — Mallow — as  the  hollyhock,  and, 
like  it,  blooms  and  fruits  through  the  season. 

Fig.  235. 


Wild  BnckwJtcat. — Original. 

The  cow-pea,  which  blooms  from  April  to  Augnist  (Fig. 
199),  is  not  only  good  for  bees,  but  for  feed,  and  to  enrich  the 
soil.  The  stone-crop  (Sedum  pulchellum)  is  another  valuable 
honey-plant  of  the  South.     In  June  the  magnolias  (Fig.  237) — 


432  THE  beb-keeper's  guide; 

there  are  several  species  in  the  South— are  in  bloom.  In  many 
parts  they  commence  to  blossom  in  May.  One  of  the  finest  of 
these  is  the  Magnolia  glauca  (Fig.  237).  One  would  suspect  at 
once  that  it  was  a  near  relative  of  the  tulip  tree.  This  is  also 
common  in  Southern  California. 

Fig.  236. 


Cotton. — Original. 

JULY  PLANTS. 

Early  in  this  month  opens  the  far-famed  basswood  or  lin- 
den (Tilia  Americana),  (Fig.  238),  which,  for  the  profusion  and 
quality  of  its  honey,  has  no  superior.  Mr.  Doolittle  got  66 
pounds  of  linden  honey  from  a  single  colony  in  three  days.  It 
is  what  has  given  Wisconsin  its  proud  place  as  a  bee-section. 
There  is  rarely  a  year  that  it  does  not  give  us  some  of  its 
incomparable  nectar.  It  has  been  estimated  that  one  linden 
tree  would  furnish,  in  a  favorable  year,  fifty  pounds  of  honey. 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY. 


433 


The  tree,  too,  from  its  great,  spreading  top  and  fine  foliage,  is 
magnificent  for  shade.  Five  of  these  trees  were  within  two 
rods  of  my  study  window,  and  their  grateful  fragrance  and 

Fig.  237 


Magnolia . — Origina  I. 

beautiful  form  and  shade  were  often  the  subject  of  remark  by 
visitors.  This  tree  is  par  excellence  for  roadside  planting.  It 
bears  transplanting  admirably,  and  is   very  little  disturbed  by 


434 


THE  BEE-KEEPER'S  GUIDE  ; 


insects.     We  have  only  to  keep  stock  away  from  it,  and  they 
are  death  to  any  tree.     Maples,  and  even  elms  in  many  parts 


Fig.  238. 


Sasswood.—From  A.  I.  Hoot  Co. 


of  the  United  States,  may  well  give  place  to  the  linden.     The 
l)eautiful  white  lumber,  and  its  rapidly  growing  use  for  boxes, 


OR,  MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  435 

sectioos,  and  furniture,  as  also  for  pulp  for  paper,  threaten  the 
continuance  of  this  incomparable  honey-tree.     Yet  the  fact 

Fig.  239. 


Pigwort.—From  A.  L  Boot  Co. 

that  it  will  grow  to  a  large  tree  in   fifteen  years,  and  will  com- 
mence to  bloom  in  five  years  from  setting,  is  full  of  promise. 
Figwort  (Scrophularia    nodosa),   (Fig.  239),  often  called 


436 


THE  BSE-KEBPER  S  GUIDE: 


Rattleweed,  as  the  seeds  will  rattle  in  the  pod,  and  Carpenter's 
Square,  as  it  has  a  square  stalk,  is  an  insignificant  looking 
weed,  ■with  inconspicuous  flowers,  that  afford  abundant  nectar 
from  the  middle  of  July  till  frost.  I  have  received  almost  as 
many  for  identification  as  I  have  of  the  asters  and  goldenrods. 
Prof.  Beal  remarked  to  me,  years  since,  that  it  hardly  seemed 
possible  that  it  could  be  so  valuable.  We  can  not  always 
rightly  estimate  by  appearances  alone.     It  is  a  very  valuable 

Fig.  240. 


Chapman  Homy-Plant. — From  A.  J.  Hoot  Co. 


plant  to  be  scattered  in  waste-places.  The  Chapman  honey- 
plant  (Echiops  sphaerocephalus),  (Fig. 240),  commences  to  bloom 
late  in  July  and  continues  till  in  August.  We  have  many 
better  native  plants,  and  as  no  plant  can  be  profitably  grown 
for  honey  alone,  we  have  no  use  for  this  foreigner.  It  takes 
its  first  name  from  its  spines,  and  the  second  from  its  round 
flower-head. 


or,  manual  of  thb  apiary. 
Fig.  241. 


437 


Rocky  Mountain  Bee-Plant. — Original. 


438 


rus,  bbk-kkepkr's  guide; 
Fig.  242. 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  439 

That  beautiful  and  valuable  honey-plant  from  Minnesota, 
Colorado,  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  Cleome,  or  the  Rocky 
Mountain  bee-plant  (Cleome  serrulata),  (Fig-.  241),  if  self-sown, 
or  sown  in  the  fall,  blooms  by  the  middle  of  July  and  lasts  for 
long  weeks.  Nor  can  anything^  be  more  gay  than  these  bril- 
liant flowers,  alive  with  bees  all  through  the  long  fall.  While 
this  is  a  very  valuable  honey-plant  in  its  native  Colorado,  it 
gives  little  or  no  promise  East. 

Fig.  243. 


Button-Ball. — Original. 

Now  commence  to  bloom  the  numerous  Eupatoriums,  or 
bonesets,  or  thoroughworts  (Fig.  242),  which  fill  the  marshes 
of  our  country,  and  the  hives  as  well,  with  their  rich,  golden 
nectar.  These  are  precursors  of  that  profusion  of  this  com- 
posite order,  whose  many  species  are  even  now  budding,  in 
preparation  for  the  sea  of  flowers  which  will  deck  the  marsh- 
lands of  August  and  September.  Wild  bergamot  (Monarda 
fistulosa),  which,  like  the  thistles,  is  of  importance  to  the  api- 


440  THS  BEB-KEEPER^  GUIDE  ; 

arist,  also  blooms  in  July.  As  before  remarked,  this  is  one  of 
the  plants  whose  lonp:  flower-tubes  are  pierced  by  the  Xylocopa 
bees.  Then  the  honey-bees  help  to  gather  the  abundant  nec- 
tar.   This  is  a  near  relative  of  the  horsemint  which,  as  will  be 

Fig.  244. 


Sour-  W(XhI. — Original. 

seen,  it  closely  resembles.  The  golden  honey-plant  (Actino- 
meris  squarrosa),  so  praised  by  Dr.  Tinker,  and  rattlesnake 
root  (Nabalus  altissimus),  which  swarms  with  bees  all  the  day 
long,  arc  also  composite  plants. 

The  little  shrub  of  our  marshes,  appropriately  named  but- 
ton-bush (Cephalanthus  occidentalis),  (Fig.  243),  also  shares 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY. 


441 


the  attention  of  the  bees  Trith  the  linden  ;  while  apiarists  of 
the  South  find  sourwood,  or  sorrel  tree  (Oxydendrum  arboreum), 
(Fig.  244),  a  valuable  honey-tree.  It  yields  much  very  excel- 
lent honey.  The  honey  is  not  quite  as  light-colored  as  sage, 
clover  and  basswood.  It  is  slow  to  granulate.  This  plant  is 
grown  at   the  Michigan   Agricultural  College,  but  it  is  not 

Fig.  245. 


Mountain  Laurel.— From  Department  of  Agriculture 


A  riowerinp  branch. 
£  C  Expanded  flower. 
ap,  ap  Antler  pockets. 
s  Stigma. 
e  Enlarged  stamens. 


/  Filaments. 
pg  Shower  of  poUen-grainB. 

a  Free  anthers. 
ca  Calyx. 

d  Section  flower-bud. 


hardy,  as  it  kills  back  nearly  every  winter.  It  belongs  to  the 
Heath  family,  which  includes  the  far-famed  heather-bloom  of 
England.  It  also  includes  our  whortleberry,  cranberry,  blue- 
berry, and  one  plant  which  has  no  enviable  reputation,  as 
furnishing  honey  which  is  very  poisonous,  even  fatal  to  those 
who  eat,  the  mountain  laurel  (Kalmia  latifolia),  (Fig.  245). 
There  is  good  reason  to  question  these  reports  as  to  poisonous 


^i  ICHS  BEK-KEfiPER'S  GDtt)E  } 

honey.  We  can  easily  see  how  mistakes  could  occur.  It  is  not 
easy  to  understand,  if  these  plants  furnish  poisonous  nectar, 
why  poisonous  honey  (?)  is  so  very  rare  an  occurrence.  A  near 
relative  of  K.  latifolia,  which  grows  at  the  South  (Andromeda 
nitida),  is  said  to  furnish   beautiful  and  wholesome  honey  in 

Fig.  246. 


From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 

gfreat  quantities.  The  yellow  jasmine  (Gelsemium  semper- 
virens),  (Fig-.  246),  is  also  said  to  furnish  honey  that  is  poison- 
ous to  both  people  and  bees.  It  blooms  in  Georgia  in  February 
and  March.  Like  Kalmia,  it  is  a  poisonous  plant,  which  pos- 
sibly accounts  for  the  evil  reputation  of  the  honey.  I  have 
eaten  freely  of  several  samples  of  this  so-called  poisonous 


OR,   MANUAI.  OP  THE  APIARY.  443 

honey  with  not  the  slightest  inconvenience.  The  Virginia 
creeper  also  blooms  in  July.  I  wish  that  I  could  say  that  this 
beautiful  vine,  transplendent  in  autumn,  is  a  favorite  with  the 
honey-bee.  Though  it  often,  nay  always,  swarms  with  wild 
bees  when  in  blossom,  yet  I  have  rarely  seen  honey-bees  visit 
the  ample  bloom  amidst  its  rich,  green,  vigorous  foliage. 

The  St.  John's  wort  (Hypericum),  with   its  many  species, 
both  shrubby  and  herbaceous,  offers  bountiful  contributions 

Fig.  247. 


Cabbage  PaJmtlio. — Original. 

to  the  delicious  stores  of  the  honey-bee.  The  catnip  (Nepeta 
cataria),  which  Quinby  said  he  believed  would  pay  better  than 
any  other  plant  for  special  planting,  blooms  at  this  time  ;  also 
asparagus — which,  if  uncut  in  spring,  will  bloom  in  June — so 
delectable  for  the  table,  and  so  elegant  for  trimming  table 
meats  and  for  banquets  in  autumn,  come  now  to  offer  their 
nectarian  gifts,  and  beautiful,  orange  pollen. 

Basil,  or  mountain  mint  (Pycnanthemum  lanceolatum),  we 
might  almost  include  all  the  mints  ;  the  blue  and  white  ver- 


444  THE  BEE-KEBPER'S  GUIDE  ; 

vains  or  verbenas  (Verbena  hastata  and  V.  stricta) ;  also  fog- 
fruit  (Lippia  lyceroides),  another  of  this  family,  is  valued  very 
highly  in  Texas— it  grows  ten   feet   high,  and  bears  beautiful 

Fig.  248. 


Trtte  Mangrove. — Original. 


white  flowers ;  the  iron  weeds  (Vernonias),  the  malvas,  Cul- 
ver's root,  Veronica  Virginica— another  of  the  figwort  family ; 
Indian  plantains,  Cacalias,  and  viper's  bugloss — the  so-called 


OR,   MANUAX,  OF  THE  APIARY.  445 

blue  thistle — all  contribute  to  the  apiary  in  July  ;  the  viper's 
bugloss  (Echium  vulg-are),  so-called  blue  thistle,  though  most 
common  South,  is  very  abundant  at  Beeton,  Canada.  Mr. 
Jones  has  it  growing  all  about  his  apiaries.  It  is  a  near  rela- 
tive of  borage,  and  does  not  belong  even  to  the  family— Com- 
positse — of  the  thistles.  Like  the  borage,  it  is  not  a  trouble- 
some weed. 

In  California,  the  blue-gum  and  the  red-gum  (Eucalyptus 
globulus  and  E.  rostrata),  introduced  from  Australia,  furnish 

Fig.  249. 


1! 

£xick  wheat. — Original 

honey  from  July  and  August  till  December.  There  are  over 
one  hundred  species  of  gum-trees  (Fig.  205).  Some  are  very 
beautiful  in  habit,  foliage  and  blossom.  They  blossom  at 
nearly  all  seasons,  summer  and  winter,  so  by  carefully  select- 
ing the  species,  the  apiarist  may  have  the  flowers  at  will. 

The  catalpa,  a  very  rapid-growing  tree,  throws  its  large, 
showy  blossoms  to  the  breeze  and  bees  in  July.  It  is  rapidly 
growing  in  favor  as  a  shade-tree,  and  is  incomparable  for 
posts.  It  lasts  for  a  great  many  years  when  imbedded  in  the 
earth.     But  "  the  noblest  Roman   of  them  all  "  is  the  cabbage 


446 


THE  BEK-KBEPSR'S  GUIDE; 


palmetto — Chamoerops  palmetto  (Fig.  247).  As  Mr.  Hart,  of 
Florida,  says,  this  is  the  linden  of  the  South.  It  yields  abun- 
dant honey,  which,  as  all  who  saw  and  tasted  it  at  the  last 
convention  at  Cincinnati,  can  vouch,  is  unsurpassed  in  flavor. 
Mr.  Muth  well  said  that  he  wished  no  finer.  This  tree  grows 
to  the  height  of  seventy  feet.    The  trunk  is  leafless  nearly  to 

Fig.  250. 


Goldeji- Rod.— From  A.  I.  Hoot  Co 


the  top.  The  small,  white  blossoms  nestle  among  the  long 
palm  leaves  in  profusion,  and  are  rich  in  both  nectar  and  pol- 
len, from  June  1st  till  August.  The  tree  is  found  from  the 
Carolinas  to  the  Gulf.  The  various  palms,  as  already  stated — 
Chamaerops,  Phoenix,  Cocus,  etc. — add  not  only  to  the  beauty 
but  to  the  honey-resources  of  California.  The  true  date-palm 
(Phoenis  dactylifera)  bids  fair  to  become  an  important  fruit- 
tree  of  Arizona.     If  it  does,  it  will  be  very  valuable  for  honey, 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  447 

and  add  further  to  the  excellent  reputation  of  that  section  for 
bees. 

At  the  same  time  with  the  above,  the  white  blossom  of  the 
black  mangrove  (Avicennia  tomentosa),  and  its  near  relative, 
Avicennia  oblong-ifolia,  come  forth  with  their  abundant  and 
incomparable  nectar,  which  hangs  in  drops.  The  honey  from 
this  and  the  cabbage  palmetto  is  clear,  and  as  fine  and  beauti- 

FiG.  251. 


Aster. 

ful  as  that  of  white  clover.  This  tree  is  confined  to  the 
Peninsula  of  Florida,  where  it  is  regarded  as  the  best  honey- 
plant  that  grows  in  that  locality. 

Here  we  see  the  danger  of  common  names.  This  is  not  a 
mangrove  at  all ;  though  the  leaves  resemble  those  of  the  true 
mangrove,  they  are  more  tomentose  or  hairy,  and,  like  that 
tree,  it  grows  down  to  the  very  water's  edge,  so  it  is  not 
affected    by  drouth.     This  is  an  evergreen,  and  forms  aq 


448  THB  bkb-kebpsr's  guide; 

impenetrable  thicket  on  the  muddy  shores  of  the  sea.  It 
belongs  to  the  same  family  as  our  verbenas — the  vervain 
family. 

The  true  mangrove  (Fig.  248)  has  yellow  blossoms,  and 
like  the  renowned  banyan  tree,  sends  numerous  stems  to  the 
earth,  each  of  which  takes  root.  This  tree  belongs  to  the 
mangrove  family,  and  is  Rhizophora  mangle. 

AUGUST  AND  SEPTEMBER   PI,ANTS. 

The  cultivated  buckwheat  (Fagopyrum  esculentum),  (Fig. 
249),  usually  blooms  in  August,  as  it  is  sown  the  first  of  July- 
three  pecks  per  acre  is  the  amount  to  sow — but  by  sowing  the 
first  of  June,  it  may  be  made  to  bloom  the  middle  of  July, 
when  there  is  generally,  in  most  localities,  an  absence  of 
nectar-secreting  flowers.  Farmers  have  often  grown  oats, 
then  raised  a  crop  of  buckwheat  which  matures  in  two  months 
from  sowing,  and  then  have  sown  to  wheat  all  the  same  sea- 
son, and  have  secured  good  crops  of  each,  all  on  the  same 
ground.  It  often  fails  to  give  a  crop  of  honey,  though  even 
then  it  may  serve  to  keep  the  bees  at  work  and  breeding.  The 
bees  rarely  work  on  buckwheat  after  eleven  o'clock.  Their 
visits  are  always  a  benefit,  and  never  an  injury,  to  the  grain. 
The  honey  is  inferior  in  color  and  flavor,  though  some  people 
prefer  this  to  all  other  honey.  It  usually  sells  for  much  less 
than  clover  or  linden  honey.  The  silver-leaf  buckwheat 
blooms  longer,  has  more  numerous  flowers,  and  thus  yields 
more  grain  than  the  common  variety.  The  Japan  buckwheat 
is  much  superior  to  either  the  common  or  silver-hull.  The 
grain  is  larger,  and  one  thousand  have  been  taken  from  a 
single  stalk.  Eighty  bushels  have  been  grown  on  a  single 
acre.  Buckwheat  is  often  plowed  under  to  enrich  the  soil.  It 
is  good  to  loosen  the  soil  and  furnish  humus,  but  does  not  add 
nitrogen,  and  so  is  not  equal  to  clover,  peas,  lupines,  or  other 
legumes.  Sown  on  ground  infested  with  wire-worms,  it 
flourishes,  and  the  insects  disappear.  Heartsease,  or  western 
smart-weed  (Polygonum  persicaria),  is  a  close  relative  of  the 
buckwheat.  It  grows  very  luxuriantly  along  the  Mississippi 
River.  The  white  or  purple  flowers  hang  in  great  clusters. 
Mr.  T.  R.  Delong  reported  at  the  Lincoln,  Nebr.,  convention 


OR,  MANUAL  OF  THB   APIARY.  449 

that  each  of  two  colonies  gathered  450  pounds  of  honey  from 
this  plant ;  and  that  his  entire  apiary  averaged  250  pounds,  all 
from  heartsease.  The  honey  is  quite  light-colored,  and  very 
excellent  in  quality. 

The  odd  shrub,  Hercules'  club  (Aralia  spinosa),  is  grown 
as  a  curiosity  North,  but  is  indigenous  in  Kentucky  and  Ten- 
nessee, and  yields  abundant  nectar.  It  blooms  at  Lookout 
Mountain  early  in  August,  just  after  the  sourwood. 

Now  come  the  numerous  goldenrods.  The  species  of  the 
genus  Solidago  (Fig.  250),  in  the  Eastern  United  States,  num- 
ber nearly  two  score,  and  occupy  all  kinds  of  soils,  and  are  at 
home  on  upland,  prairie  and  morass.  These  abound  in  all 
parts  of  the  United  States.  They  yield  abundance  of  rich, 
golden  honey,  with  flavor  that  is  unsurpassed  by  any  other. 
Fortunate  the  apiarist  who  can  boast  of  a  thicket  of  Solidagos 
in  his  locality. 

The  many  plants  usually  styled  sunflowers,  because  of 
their  resemblance  to  our  cultivated  plants  of  that  name,  which 
deck  the  hillside,  meadow  and  marsh  land,  now  unfurl  their 
showy  involucres,  and  open  their  modest  corollas,  to  invite  the 
myriad  insects  to  sip  the  precious  nectar  which  each  of  the 
clustered  flowers  secretes.  Our  cultivated  sunflowers,  I  think, 
are  indifi^erent  honey-plants,  though  some  think  them  big 
with  beauty,  and  their  seeds  are  relished  by  poultry.  But  the 
numerous  species  of  asters  (Fig.  251),  so  wide-spread,  the  beg- 
gar-ticks and  Spanish-needles,  Bidens,  of  our  marshes,  the 
tick-seed.  Coreopsis,  also,  of  the  low,  marshy  places,  with 
hundreds  more  of  the  great  family  Composite,  are  replete  with 
precious  nectar,  and  with  favorable  seasons  make  the  apiarist 
who  dwells  in  their  midst  jubilant,  as  he  watches  the  bees 
which  fairly  flood  the  hives  with  the  rich  and  delicious  honey. 
The  Hon.  J.  M.  Hambaugh  found  Spanish-needles— Coreopsis 
—very  abundant  in  the  low  flats  of  Illinois.  Almost  every 
year  it  gave  much  very  thick  and  excellent  honey.  It  weighed 
twelve  pounds  to  the  gallon.  Often  the  bees  took  over  twelve 
pounds  daily  for  more  than  a  week  at  a  time.  For  several 
years,  also,  those  fifty  colonies  of  bees  stored  over  a  ton  of  this 
most  excellent  honey  each  season.  In  all  of  this  great  family, 
the  flowers  are  small  and  inconspicuous,  clustered  in  compact 


450 


THE  BBE-KEEPKR'S  GUIDE*, 


heads,  and  when  the  plants  are  showy  with  bloom,  like  the 
sunflowers,  the  brilliancy  is  due  to  the  involucre,  or  bracts, 
which  serve  as  a  frill  to  decorate  the  more  modest  flowers. 

The  great  willow-herb,  or  fireweed  (Epilobium  angusti- 
folium),  (Fig.  252),  is  often  the  source  of  immense  honey-har- 
vests.    The  downy  seeds  blow  to  great  distances,  and,  finding 

Fig.  252. 


Great  WHluio-IIerb,  after  Gray. 


A  Flower  with  ripe  stigma. 
St  Uuripe  stamens. 
r  Petal. 
T  PoUen-tube. 


<S"  Ripe  slifrma. 
li  Flower  wiili  ripe  pollen. 
Pit  Pollen-erain, 


a  lodgment,  their  vitality  makes  them  burst  forth  whenever 
brush  is  burned  or  forest  fires  rage.  Hence  the  name,  fire- 
weed.  This  handsome  plant  often  covers  acres  of  burnt  lands 
in  northern  Michigan  with  its  beautiful  pink  bloom.  Unlike 
most  nectar  from  late  bloom,  the  honey  from  this  flower  is 


OR,  MANUAI.  OF  THE   APIARY. 


451 


white  as  clover  honey.     It  often    gives  a   rich   harvest  to  the 
apiarist  of  northern  Michigan. 


Another  excellent  fall   honey-plant  of  wide  range  is  the 
coral-berry  or  Indian  currant  (Symphoricarpus  vulgaris).    The 


452  THE  BEE-KEBPBR'S  GUIDE; 

honey-product  of  this  plant  is  worthy  its  name.  The  closely 
related  snow-drop  (S.  racemosus),  common  in  cultivation,  is 
also  a  honey-plant.  I  close  this  account  with  mention  of 
another,  Cleome,  the  famous  spider-plant  (Cleome  spinosa), 
(Fig-.  253).  This  plant  thrives  best  in  rich,  damp,  clay  soil.  It 
is  only  open  for  a  little  time  before  nightfall  and  at  early 
dawn,  closing-  by  the  middle  of  the  forenoon  ;  but  when  open 
its  huge  drops  of  nectar  keep  the  bees  wild  with  excitement, 
calling  them  up  even  before  daylight,  and  enticing  them  to 
the  field  long  after  dusk.  It  is  a  native  of  the  tropics,  and  is 
found  now  from  south  New  Jersey  to  Florida  and  Louisiana. 

I  have  thus  mentioned  the  most  valuable  honey-plants  of 
our  country.  Of  course,  there  are  many  omissions.  Let  all 
apiarists,  by  constant  observation,  help  to  fill  up  the  list. 

BOOKS   ON   BOTANY. 

I  am  often  asked  what  books  are  best  to  make  apiarists 
botanists.  I  am  glad  to  answer  this  question,  as  the  study  of 
botany  will  not  only  be  valuable  discipline,  but  will  also 
furnish  abundant  .pleasure,  and  give  important  practical 
information.  Gray's  Lessons  and  Manual  of  Botany,  in  one 
volume,  published  by  Ivison,  Phinney,  Blakeman  &  Co.,  New 
York,  is  the  most  desirable  treatise  on  this  subject.  A  more 
recent  work  by  Prof.  C.  E.  Bessey,  and  published  by  Henry 
Holt  &  Co.,  is  also  very  excellent.  Coulter's  and  Atkinson's 
Botanies  are  also  most  excellent.  The  first  treats  of  syste- 
matic, the  second  of  physiological  botany,  while  the  last  two 
are  up  to  date  and  very  fascinating. 

PRACTICAL  CONCLUSIONS. 

It  will  pay  well  for  the  apiarist  to  decorate  his  grounds 
with  soft  and  silver  maples,  for  their  beauty  and  early  bloom. 
If  his  soil  is  rich,  sugar-maples  and  lindens  may  well  serve  a 
similar  purpose.  Indeed,  every  apiarist  should  strive  to  have 
others  plant  the  linden.  No  tree  is  so  worthy  a  place  by  the 
roadside.  The  Judas  and  tulip  trees,  both  North  and  South, 
may  well  be  made  to  ornament  his  home.  For  vines,  obtain 
the  wistarias,  where  they  are  hardy.     In  California,  encourage 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF  THE   APIARY.  453 

long  avenues  of  eucalyptus,  the  graceful  peppers,  and  the 
incomparable  date-palms. 

Sow  and  encourage  the  sowing  of  alsike  clover  and  silver- 
leaf  or  Japanese  buckwheat  in  your  neighborhood.  Be  sure 
that  your  wife,  children,  and  bees  can  often  repair  to  a  large 
bed  of  the  new  giant  or  grandiflora  mignonettte,  and  remem- 
ber that  it,  with  figwort,  spider-plant.  Rocky  Mountain  bee- 
plant,  and  borage,  bloom  till  frost.  Study  the  bee-plants  of 
your  region,  and  then  study  the  foregoing  table,  and  provide 
for  a  succession,  remembering  that  the  mustards,  rape  and 
buckwheat  may  be  made  to  bloom  almost  at  pleasure,  by  sow- 
ing at  the  proper  time.  Do  not  forget  that  borage  and  the 
mustards  seem  comparatively  indifferent  to  wet  weather.  Be 
sure  that  all  waste-places  are  stocked  with  motherwort,  catnip, 
pleurisy-root,  figwort,  cleome,  viper's-bugloss,  asters,  etc. 

The  foregoing  dates,  unless  specially  mentioned,  are  only 
correct  for  Michigan,  northern  Ohio,  and  similar  latitudes, 
and  for  more  Southern  latitudes  must  be  varied,  which,  by 
comparison  of  a  few,  as  the  fruit-trees,  becomes  no  difficult 
matter. 


454  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 


CHAPTER  XVm. 

WINTERING  BEES. 

This  is  a  subject,  of  course,  of  paramount  importance  to 
the  apiarists  of  the  Northern  States,  as  this  is  the  rock  on 
which  some  of  even  the  most  successful  have  split.  Yet  I 
come  fearlessly  to  consider  this  question,  as  from  all  the  mul- 
titude of  disasters  I  see  no  occasion  for  discouragement.  If 
the  problem  of  successful  wintering  has  not  been  solved 
already,  it  surely  will  be,  and  that  speedily.  So  important  an 
interest  was  never  yet  vanquished  by  misfortune,  and  there  is 
no  reason  to  think  that  history  is  now  going  to  be  reversed. 
Of  course  this  chapter  has  no  practical  value  to  the  apiarists 
of  the  South  and  Pacific  Coast.  There  safe  wintering  is 
assured,  except  as  the  careless  bee-keeper  permits  starvation. 

THE   CAUSES  OF   DISASTROUS   WINTERING. 

I  fully  believe  (and  to  no  branch  of  this  subject  have  I 
given  more  thought,  study,  and  observation)  that  all  the 
losses  may  be  traced  to  either  unwholesome  food,  extremes  of 
temperature,  or  protracted  cold.  I  know  from  actual  and  wide- 
spread observation,  that  the  severe  loss  of  1870  and  1871  was 
attended  in  Michigan  with  unsuitable  honey  in  the  hive.  The 
previous  autumn  was  unprecedentedly  dry.  Flowers  were 
rare,  and  the  stores  were  largely  honey-dew,  collected  from 
scale  insects,  and  consequently  were  unwholesome.  I  tasted 
of  honey  from  many  hives  only  to  find  it  nauseating.  Cider, 
if  collected  too  freely,  will  also  work  ruin  in  winter.  We  must 
remember  that  bees  do  not  void  their  intestines  for  long 
months,  so  good  food  is  absolutely  imperative. 

Extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  also  detrimental  to  the 
bees.  If  the  temperature  of  the  hive  becomes  too  high,  the 
bees  become  restless,  eat  more  than  they  ought,  and  if  con- 
fined to  their  hives  are  distended  with   their  feces,  become 


OR,  MANUAI,   OF   THB   APIARY.  455 

diseased,  besmear  their  comb  and  hives,  and  die.  If,  when 
they  become  thus  disturbed,  they  could  have  a  purifying 
flight,  all  would  be  well.  Again,  if  the  temperature  become 
extremely  low,  the  bees,  to  keep  up  the  animal  heat,  must 
take  more  food  ;  they  are  uneasy,  exhale  much  moisture,  which 
may  settle  and  freeze  on  the  outer  combs  about  the  cluster, 
preventing  the  bees  from  getting  the  needed  food,  and  thus  in 
this  case  both  dysentery  and  starvation  confront  the  bees. 
That  able  and  far-seeing  apiarist,  the  lamented  M.  Quinby, 
was  one  of  the  first  to  discover  this  fact ;  and  here,  as  else- 
where, gave  advice  that,  if  heeded,  would  have  saved  great 
loss  and  sore  disappointment.  Dr.  Miller  is  doubtless  correct 
in  the  belief  that  he  has  cured  and  prevented  dysentery  by  use 
of  a  coal-stove  in  the  cellar.  Of  course,  Dr,  Miller's  good 
judgment  and  caution  were  coupled  with  the  artificial  heat.  I 
have  little  doubt,  in  fact  I  know  from  actual  investigation, 
that  in  the  past  severe  winters,  those  bees  which  under  con- 
finement have  been  subject  to  severe  extremes,  were  the  ones 
that  invariably  perished.  Had  the  bees  been  kept  in  a  uniform 
temperature,  ranging  from  40  to  45  degrees,  F.,  the  record 
would  have  been  materially  changed.  Bees  do  not  hibernate 
in  the  sense  that  other  insects  do,  though  if  the  temperature  is 
just  right,  from  40  to  45  degrees  F.,  they  are  very  quiet  and 
eat  but  little.  Yet  that  they  are  even  then  functionally  active 
is  readily  shown  by  the  high,  independent  temperature  in  the 
hive  and  their  frequent  change  of  position  in  the  cluster. 

IJxcessive  moisture,  especially  in  cases  of  protracted  cold, 
is  always  to  be  avoided.  Bees,  like  all  other  animals,  are 
constantly  giving  off  moisture,  which,  of  course,  will  be 
accelerated  if  the  bees  become  disturbed  and  are  thus  led  to 
consume  more  food.  This  moisture  not  only  acts  as  explained 
above,  but  also  induces  fungous  growths.  The  mouldy  comb 
is  not  wholesome,  though  it  may  never  cause  death.  Hence, 
another  necessity  for  sufi&cient  warmth  to  drive  this  moisture 
from  the  hive,  and  some  means  to  absorb  it  without  opening 
the  hive  above  and  permitting  a  current  which  will  disturb  the 
bees,  and  cause  the  greater  consumption  of  honey.  It  is 
probable  that,  with  the  proper  temperature,  moisture  will  do 
little  harm. 


456  THE  bee-kbkper's  guide; 


THE  REQUISITE  TO    SAFE  WINTERING — GOOD  FOOD. 

To  winter  safely,  th^n,  demands  that  the  bees  have  thirty 
pounds  by  weiprht,  not  guess — I  have  known  many  cases  where 
guessing  meant  starvation— ot  good,  capped  honey  (granulated 
sugar  is  just  as  good).  With  the  extractor  the  temptation  is 
ever  with  us,  to  take  too  much  honey  from  the  hive.  It  is 
always  safest  to  leave  enough,  thirty  to  sixty  pounds  of  the 
best  honey — the  best  is  none  too  good — for  a  year's,  or  in 
California  for  two  years',  stores.  It  is  now  proved  that  it  is 
even  safer  to  feed  a  syrup  made  of  granulated  sugar.  We 
thus  are  sure  that  the  stores  are  good  and  suitable.  Often  it 
pays  to  do  this,  as  we  get  enough  for  the  extracted  honey  to 
pay  well  for  the  sugar  and  our  time  and  trouble.  If  desired, 
this  may  be  fed  as  previously  explained,  which  should  be  done 
so  early  that  all  will  be  capped  during  the  warm  days  of 
October. 

The  bees  should  be  able  to  pass  over  or  through  the  combs. 
Hill's  device — bent  pieces  placed  above  the  frames  so  as  to 
raise  the  cloth  cover — will  permit  the  first,  while  small  holes 
cut  through  the  combs  will  enable  the  bees  to  pass  from  one 
comb  to  another  without  having  to  pass  around.  In  a  good 
cellar  it  is  not  necessary  to  do  more  at  most  than  so  to  arrange 
that  the  bees  can  pass  over  the  frames.  I  used  to  cut  holes, 
but  do  so  no  more.  This  preparatory  work  I  always  do  early 
in  October,  when  I  extract  all  uncapped  honey,  take  out  all 
frames  after  I  have  given  each  colony  the  thirty  pounds,  by 
weight,  of  honey,  confine  the  space  with  a  division-board, 
cover  with  the  quilt  and  chaff,  and  then  leave  undisturbed  till 
the  cold  of  November  calls  for  further  care.  We  must  most 
carefully  exclude  honey-dew  from  scale  insects,  and  must  see 
that  cider  is  not  stored  for  winter  food.  I  prefer  that  the 
combs  have  no  pollen  in  them,  and  that  they  be  so  full  of 
honey  that  six  or  eight  will  be  enough.  Pollen  usually  does 
no  harm,  though  sometimes  it  is  injurious.  If  the  bees  can  fly 
often,  or  if  kept  in  a  uniform  temperature  at  from  40  to  45 
degrees  F.,  the  pollen  will  do  no  harm.  The  combs  may  well 
be  one-half  inch  apart.  If  the  bees  have  been  neglected,  and 
mid-winter  finds  them  destitute  of  stores,  then  they  should  not 


OR,  MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  457 

be  fed  liquid  honey,  though  this  has  been  done  with  success, 
but  either  the  Good  or  Viallon,  or  some  otner  solid  candy, 
should  be  placed  on  the  frames  just  above  the  cluster.  Or  we 
may  run  the  candy  into  a  frame  and  hang-  it  in  the  hive.  (See 
Candy,  page  318.) 

SECURE  LATE  BREEDING. 

Keep  the  bees  breeding  till  the  first  of  September.  Except 
in  years  of  excessive  drouth,  this  will  occur  without  extra  care. 
Failure  may  result  from  the  presence  of  worthless  queens. 
Any  queens  which  seem  not  to  be  prolific  should  be  superseded 
whenever  the  fact  becomes  evident.  /  regard  this  as  most 
important.  Few  know  how  much  is  lost  by  tolerating  feeble, 
impotent  queens  in  the  apiary,  whose  ability  can  only  keep 
the  colonies  alive.  Never  keep  such  queens  about.  Here, 
then,  is  another  reason  for  always  keeping  extra  queens  on 
hand.  Even  with  excellent  queens,  a  failure  in  the  honey- 
yield  may  occasionally  cause  breeding  to  cease.  In  such 
cases,  we  have  only  to  feed  as  directed  under  the  head  of  Feed- 
ing. It  is  not  true  that  very  large  colonies  will  winter  better 
than  smaller  ones.  Yet  it  is  important  that  the  bees  be  nor- 
mal in  age  and  condition. 

TO  SECURE  AND  MAINTAIN  THE  PROPER  TEMPERATURE. 

We  ought  also  to  provide  against  extremes  of  temperature. 
It  is  desirable  to  keep  the  temperature  about  the  hive  between 
38  and  50  degrees  F.,  through  the  entire  winter,  from  Novem- 
ber to  April.  If  no  cellar  or  house  is  at  hand,  this  may  be 
partially  accomplished  as  follows  :  Some  pleasant,  dry  day  in 
late  October  or  early  November,  raise  the  stand  and  place 
straw  beneath  ;  then  surround  the  hive  with  a  box  a  foot  out- 
side the  hive,  with  movable  top,  and  open  on  the  east  ;  or  else 
have  a  long  wooden  tube,  opposite  the  entrance,  to  permit 
flight ;  this  tube  should  be  six  or  eight  inches  square  to  permit 
easy  examination  in  winter.  The  same  end  may  be  gained  by 
driving  stakes  and  putting  boards  around.  Then  we  crowd 
between  the  box  and  the  hive  either  cut  straw,  chaff  or  shav- 
ings. After  placing  a  good  thickness  of  cut  straw  above  the 
hive,  lay  on  the  cover  of  the  box,  or  cover  with  boards.     This 


458 


THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 


preserves  ag^ainst  chang-es  of  temperature  during  the  winter, 
and  also  permits  the  bees  to  fly,  if  it  becomes  necessary  from 
a  protracted  period  of  warm  weather.  I  have  thus  kept  all  our 
bees  safely  during-  two  of  the  disastrous  winters.  This  plan 
usually  succeeds  well,  but  will  fail  in  a  very  severe  winter  like 
that  of  1880-81.     As   some  may   wish   to  try,  and  possibly  to 

Fig.  254. 


Packing  Box. — Original. 


adopt  it,  I  will  describe  the  box  used  at  our  College,  which 
costs  but  one  dollar,  and  is  convenient  to  store  away  in 
summer. 

BOX   FOR   PACKING. 

The  sides  of  this  (Fig.  254,  a,  a)  facing  east  and  west  are 
three  and  a  half  feet  long,  two  feet  high  at  the  south  end, 
and  two  and  a  half  feet  at  the  north.  They  are  in  one 
piece,  which  is  secured  by  nailing-  the  matched  boards  which 
form  them  to  cleats,  which  are  one  inch  from  the  ends.  The 
north  end  (Fig.  254,  b)  is  three  feet  by  two  and  a  half  feet,  the 


OR,  MANUAI.  OF  THE  APIARY.  459 

south  (Fig.  254,  b)  three  feet  by  two  feet,  and  made  the  same 
as  are  the  sides.  The  slanting  edges  of  the  side  (Fig.  254,  a,  a) 
are  made  by  using  for  the  upper  boards  the  strips  formed  by 
sawing  diagonally  from  corner  to  corner  a  board  six  inches 
wide  and  three  feet  long.  The  cover  (Fig.  254,  g),  which  is 
removed  in  the  figure,  is  large  enough  to  cover  the  top  and 
project  one  inch  at  both  ends.  It  should  be  battened,  and  held 
in  one  piece  by  cleats  (Fig.  254,  h)  four  inches  wide,  nailed  on 
to  the  ends.  These  will  drop  over  the  ends  of  the  box,  and 
thus  hold  the  cover  in  place,  and  prevent  rain  and  snow  from 
driving  in.  When  in  place  this  slanting  cover  permits  the 
rain  to  run  off  easily,  and  will  dry  quickly  after  a  storm.  By 
a  single  nail  at  each  corner  the  four  sides  may  be  tacked 
together  about  the  hive,  when  it  can  be  packed  in  with  cut 
straw  (Fig.  254)  or  fine  chaff,  which  should  be  carefully  done, 
if  the  day  is  cold,  so  as  not  to  disquiet  the  bees.  At  the  center 
and  bottom  of  the  east  side  (Fig.  254,  c)  cut  out  a  square  eight 
inches  each  way,  and  between  this  and  the  hive  place  a  bot- 
tomless tube  (the  top  of  this  tube  is  represented  as  removed  in 
figure  to  show  entrance  to  hive),  before  putting  in  the  cut 
straw  or  chaff  and  adding  the  cover.  This  box  should  be  put 
in  place  before  the  bleak,  cold  days  of  November,  and  retained 
in  position  till  the  stormy  winds  of  April  are  passed.  This 
permits  the  bees  to  fly  when  very  warm  weather  comes  in  win- 
ter or  spring,  and  requires  no  attention  from  the  apiarist.  By 
placing  two  or  three  hives  close  together  in  autumn— j^^  never 
move  the  colonies  more  than  three  or  four  feet  at  any  one  time, 
as  such  removals  involve  the  loss  of  many  bees — one  box  may 
be  made  to  cover  all,  and  at  less  expense.  This  will  also  be 
more  trustworthy  in  very  cold  winters.  Late  in  spring  these 
boxes  may  be  removed  and  packed  away,  and  the  straw  or 
chaff  carried  away,  or  removed  a  short  distance  and  burned. 

CHAFF-HIVES. 

Messrs.  Townley,  Butler,  Root,  Poppleton,  and  others, 
prefer  chaff-hives,  which  are  simply  double-walled  hives,  with 
the  four-inch  or  five-inch  chambers  filled  with  chaff.  The 
objections  to  these  I  take  to  be :  First,  they  are  not  proof 
against  severe  and  long-continued  cold,  like  the  winter  of 


460  THE  bee-keeper's  GUIDE; 

1880-81 :  second,  such  cumbrous  hives  are  inconvenient  to 
handle  in  summer ;  and,  third,  they  are  expensive.  That  they 
would  in  part  supply  the  place  of  shade,  is,  perhaps,  in  their 
favor,  while  Mr.  A.  I.  Root  thinks  they  are  not  expensive. 

Mr.  O.  O.  Poppleton,  one  of  our  most  intelligent  bee- 
keepers, shows  practically  that  the  first  objection  given  above 
is  not  valid.  So,  very  likely,  the  failure  in  so  many  apiaries 
in  1880-81  was  rather  due  to  improper  use.  Mr.  Poppleton 
claims  numerous  advantages  for  these  hives  : 

1st.  In  his  hands,  success. 

2d.  They  permit  early  preparation  for  winter. 

3d.  They  give  entire  freedom  from  care  of  the  bees  from 
September  till  March. 

4th.  Preparation  for  winter  requires  only  slight  labor. 

Sth.  We  can  easily  get  at  the  bees  at  any  time. 

6th.  The  bees  are  not  excited  by  a  slight  rise  in  tempera- 
ture, and  so  are  not  lost  by  flying  on  cold  days  ;  do  not  breed 
in  winter  and  spring  when  they  need  quiet,  and  do  not 
"dwindle  "  in  spring. 

7th.  They  are  valuable  aids  in  building  up  nuclei  aad 
weak  colonies  at  cold  periods  at  any  one  time  of  the  year. 

8th.  They  are  specially  desirable  to  protect  the  bees  in 
April  and  May,  and  prevent  "  spring  dwindling." 

RULES  FOR  THEIR  USE. 

Mr.  Poppleton  urges  the  following  important  points : 

1st.  Pack  early  in  autumn  before  cold  weather,  and  do  not 
remove  the  packing  till  the  warm  weather  has  come  to  stay. 

2d.  Have  five  or  six  inches  on  all  sides  of  the  bees,  oifine 
cAfl^— timothy  is  best — entirely  freed  from  straw. 

3d.  Be  sure  and  have  the. chaff  below  the  bees,  as  well  as 
above  and  on  the  sides. 

4th.  Do  not  put  the  chaff  above  the  bees  on  loose,  but  con- 
fine in  sacks.     This  is  for  convenience  and  neatness. 

Sth.  Have  as  much  empty  space  as  possible  inside  the  hive 
and  outside  the  packing  ;  and  never  let  the  cover  to  the  hive 
rest  immediately  on  the  packing. 

6th.  Crowd  the  bees  on  to  a  few  frames— never  more  than 
eight — and  the  packing  close  to  the  bees. 


OR,  MANUAL   OF   THB   APIARY. 


461 


Winter    passages    should   be   made   through    all   the 


7th. 
combs. 

Mr.  Jones  prefers  that  the  outer  wall  of  the  chaff-hive 
should  be  of  narrow  boards  so  as  to  be  more  impervious  to 
dampness.  He  also  uses  fine,  dry  sawdust  instead  of  chaff. 
Mr.  Root,  in  his  two-story  hives  (Fig.  255),  uses  a  thicker  layer 

Fig.  255. 


Section  of  a  Chaff-Hive.— From  A,  I.  Root  Co. 


of  chaff  below,  but  carries  it  to  the  top.  Of  course,  the  double 
wall  need  not  extend  on  the  sides  of  the  frames.  The  division- 
boards  on  the  sides  of  the  frames  may  make  the  double  wall. 

WINTERING  IN  A  BEK-HOUSE. 

As  Mr.  D.  A.  Jones  has  tested  bee-houses  on  a  very  large 
scale,  and  met  with  success,  I  will  quote  directly  from  him  : 

"The  house  should  be  so  constructed  that  the  outdoor 
temperature  can  not  affect  that  of  the  bee  house  ;  and  in  order 
to  accomplish  this  its  walls  should  be  packed  tightly  with 
two  feet  of  dry  sawdust  or  three  feet  of  chaff  packing,  over- 
head the  same  thickness,  and  the  bottom  so  protected  that  no 


462  THE  bbe-kbeper's  guide  ; 

frost  can  penetrate.  Next,  it  should  have  a  ventilating  tube 
at  the  top,  of  not  less  than  one  square  inch  to  each  colony  of 
bees.  It  should  have  sub-earth  ventilation  by  means  of  a 
tube  laid  below  the  depth  frost  will  penetrate,  and  from  one  to 
three  hundred  feet  in  length,  coming  in  contact  with  outside 
atmosphere  at  the  other  end  ;  as  air  passes  through  this  tube 
it  is  tempered  by  the  distance  through  the  earth,  and  comes 
into  the  house  at  an  even  temperature.  By  means  of  slides  at 
these  ventilators,  the  temperature  can  be  arranged  in  the  bee- 
house,  which  should  stand  from  43  to  46  degrees,  and  in  no 
case  should  it  fall  lower  than  42  degrees.  There  should  be 
tight-fitting,  triple  doors,  which  will  make  two  dead-air  spaces. 

"When  the  bee-house  is  filled,  and  during  warm  weather 
in  the  spring,  the  bees  should  not  be  set  out  on  the  summer 
stands  until  the  first  pollen  appears  (which  is  generally  from 
the  tag  alder  or  black  willow) — it  is  necessary  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  room  be  kept  at  the  wintering  standpoint.  This 
may  be  done  by  means  of  an  ice-box  or  refrigerator,  filled  with 
ice  or  snow,  and  suspended  at  the  top  of  the  room  in  close 
proximity  to  the  ceiling.  The  bottom  of  the  box  must  be  so 
constructed  that  while  the  warm  air  may  be  allowed  to  pass  up 
through  the  refrigerator,  the  drippings  will  not  drop  to  the 
floor  and  create  moisture.  This  latter  may  be  prevented  by 
means  of  a  tube  running  from  the  box  down  through  the  floor." 

The  rules  for  removing  and  storing  in  the  house  are  the 
same  as  those  for  cellar.  From  expense  and  difficulty  in  main- 
taining a  uniform  temperature,  I  think  the  house  less  desirable 
than  the  cellar. 

WINTERING   IN    A   CE1,I,AR. 

North  of  the  latitude  of  Central  (and  I  think  we  may  say 
Southern)  Ohio,  I  think  a  good  cellar  is  not  only  the  safest, 
but  the  best  place  in  which  to  winter  bees.  I  have  kept  bees 
for  many  years  in  such  a  cellar  with  no  loss.  The  great  point 
is  to  have  perfect  control  of  the  temperature.  This  must  be 
kept  between  38  degrees  F.  and  SO  degrees  F.,  and  should  never 
vary  suddenly.  It  were  best  if  it  were  always  at  45  degrees  F. 
With  a  cellar  all  is  under  ground,  and  we  are  thus  fortified 
against  the  effects  of  our  sudden  changes  of  temperature.  The 
sub  earth  ventilator,  as  described  above,  though  noc  necessary, 


OR,  MANUAI,   OF   THE!   APIARY. 


463 


as  the  experience  of  many  has  fully  proved,  is  a  help.  It  is 
still  better  if  the  vertical  shaft  or  pipe  connect  with  a  stove 
above  which  is  much  used  in  winter.  This  creates  a  draft, 
and  as  the  air  is  brought  underground  through  the  long  sub- 
earth  pipe,  the  air  is  warmed.  The  pipe  should  connect  with 
the  stove-pipe  above  at  quite  a  height  above  the  stove,  or  the 
stove  may  smoke.  I  found  at  the  Michigan  Agricultural  Col- 
lege that  we  got  quite  a  draft,  especially  on  windy  days,  even 
if  there  was  no  fire,  but  the  vertical  pipe— a  common  stove-pipe 
served  exceUently  well— connects  simply  with  a  chimney 
which  projects  above  the  house.  Such  an  arrangement  not 
only  controls  the  temperature  but  ventilates  the  cellar.  A 
large  cistern  full  of  water,  or  water  running  through  a  cellar 
deep  under  ground,  is  a  wonderful  moderator,  and  will  surely 
keep  the  temperature  at  the  proper  point.  It  is  imperative  that 
every  bee-keeper  have  a  thermometer  in  his  cellar,  and  by 
frequent  examination  know  that  the  temperature  is  at  the 
proper  point.  Unless  he  finds  that  he  can  not  control  the  tem- 
perature without,  he  would  better  not  go  to  the  expense  of 
either  sub-earth  ventilation  or  a  cistern. 

Dr.  C.  C.  Miller  keeps  a  small  coal-stove  burning  with  an 
open  stove-door  in  each  cellar,  and  thus  keeps  the  temperature 
just  as  he  desires.  My  brother  keeps  as  many  bees  in  his 
house- cellar  with  no  such  pains  or  labor,  and  yet  is  as  success- 
ful as  is  Dr.  Miller.  The  thing  to  remember  is,  we  must  con- 
trol the  temperature. 

I  commence  preparation  for  winter  as  soon  as  the  first 
frost  shows  that  the  harvest  is  over.  I  then  put  five  lyang- 
stroth  or  seven  Gallup  frames  at  one  side  or  end  of  the  hive, 
where  they  are  to  remain  for  the  winter.  If  these  have  not 
enough  food  I  feed  till  they  have.  If  other  frames  have  brood 
I  put  these  close  beside,  and  remove  them  as  soon  as  the  brood 
has  all  matured,  and  close  up  the  other  frames  by  use  of  a 
division-board.  ^  I  now  cover  all  with  a  cloth  and  with  a  super 
of  chaff  or  dry  sawdust.  For  the  past  two  years  I  have  left  all 
the  combs  in  very  strong  colonies,  and  covered  simply  with  a 
board,  and  these  colonies  have  done  well.  In  a  good  cellar 
bees  need  no  packing  about  or  above  the  brood-chamber. 

Before  cold  weather— any  time  from  the  first  to  the  middle 


464  TH3  BEK-KBKPER'S  GUIDE; 

of  November — the  bees  are  carried  into  the  cellar.  This  would 
better  be  done  carefully,  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  bees.  Yet  I 
am  not  sure  that  such  disturbance  is  any  special  injury.  To 
prevent  the  bees  from  coming  out  in  case  of  disturbance,  the 
entrance-blocks  must  close  thfe  entrances.  Dr.  Miller  uses  wet 
cloths  to  effect  this. 

In  the  cellar  the  hives  should  rest  a  foot  from  the  bottom, 
and  may  rest  on  each  other,  breaking  joints,  the  weakest  colo- 
nies at  the  top.  When  all  are  in,  and  quiet,  the  entrances  are 
opened  wide.  I  would  (if  it  were  not  for  the  expense,  and  I 
had  loose  bottom-boards  so  that  I  could)  place  a  rim  under  each 
hive  so  as  to  raise  it  two  or  three  inches  above  the  bottom- 
board.  Except  for  the  open  entrance,  I  give  no  special  venti- 
lation to  each  hive.  Now  we  shut  our  two  or  three  doors,  and 
if  our  cellar  is  right  we  have  no  more  care  for  the  bees  till  the 
succeeding  April.  Should  the  bees  become  uneasy  and  soil 
their  hives  about  the  entrance — they  will  not  if  the  food  is  all 
right  and  the  temperature  keeps  at  the  right  point  (from  38 
degrees  to  SO  degrees  F.)— then  it  may  be  well  to  put  the  bees 
out  for  a  flight  in  February  or  March,  in  case  a  warm  day 
affords  opportunity.  In  case  there  is  snow,  a  little  straw  may 
be  scattered  over  it.  The  day  must  be  quite  warm.  It  is  far 
wiser  to  have  our  cellar  right  so  we  shall  not  need  to  do  this. 

If  the  bees  get  short  of  stores  in  winter— this  would  show 
great  neglect  on  the  part  of  the  bee-keeper — they  should  be 
fed  "  Good  candy,"  cakes  of  which  may  be  laid  on  the  frames 
and  covered  with  cloth.  Frames  of  honey  or  syrup,  filled  as 
already  described,  may  be  given  bees  in  mid-winter.  The  idea 
that  bees  can  not  be  examined  in  winter  is  incorrect.  Frames 
may  be  taken  out  or  added,  though  it  were  doubtless  better  to 
leave  the  bees  undisturbed..  The  cellar  should  be  dark  and 
quiet.  If  everything  is  just  right,  light  does  no  harm  ;  but  if 
it  gets  pretty  cold  or  too  warm  then  the  bees  become  uneasy 
and  fly  out,  never  to  return.  Some  bees  always  leave  the  hive 
in  winter.  These  are  veterans,  and  are  ready  to  die.  Thus, 
with  100  colonies  of  bees  in  a  cellar,  we  need  not  be  anxious 
even  if  a  good  many  quarts  come  out  to  die. 

In  spring,  when  the  flowers  have  started,  so  that  the  bees 
can  gather  honey  and  pollen,  they  may  be  set  out.    This  better 


OR,    MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  465 

be  too  late  than  too  early.  In  Central  Michigan,  April  15th  is 
usually  early  enough.  I  repeat  :  Better  too  late  than  too  early. 
The  colonies  are  put  each  on  its  own  stand,  and  each  hive  well 
cleaned  out.  Each  colony  should  have  plenty  of  honey.  Scant 
stores  in  spring  always  bring  loss,  if  not  ruin.  We  now  take 
away  extra  frames  of  comb,  giving  the  bees  simply  what  they 
will  cover,  but  always  a  good  amount  of  honey.  A  frame  of 
pollen  taken  away  the  previous  autumn  may  also  be  added. 
We  close  up  about  the  bees  with  a  division-board,  and  cover 
warmly  above  by  adding  a  chafF-filled  super. 

If  we  give  abundant  stores,  I  am  not  sure  but  for  strong 
colonies  a  full  set  of  frames  and  board  above,  which,  however, 
must  fit  very  snugly,  is  as  good  as  a  chaff  covering  or  chaff- 
hive.  For  the  simple  Heddon-L,angstroth  hive,  however,  I 
think  a  warm  cloth  under  the  cover  is  very  desirable.  I  tried 
some  colonies  in  this  way  in  two  springs,  and  was  pleased  with 
the  results.  I  am  not  yet  sure  but  it  is  always  better  to  cover 
with  chaff,  sawdust  or  leaves  ;  but  we  must  give  plenty  of  honey, 
and  perhaps  we  must  cover  warmly  and  snugly,  to  win  the  best 
success.  I  always  thought  so  in  the  past,  but  now  I  am  in 
doubt.  Even  if  better,  it  may  still  prove  more  profitable  to 
give  plenty  of  honey,  and  let  the  hives  alone,  with  a  full  set 
of  combs  in  each.  This  saves  much  time.  Geo.  Grimm  and 
my  brother  have  long  practiced  this  and  have  succeeded. 

Perhaps  I  ought  to  say  that  all  colonies  should  be  strong 
in  autumn  ;  but  I  have  said  before,  never  have  weak  colonies. 
As  before  stated,  a  colony  need  not  be  very  large  to  winter 
well;  but  they  should  be  strong,  in  possession  of  a  good  queen, 
and  the  proper  proportion  of  young  and  vigorous  bees.  Yet 
for  fear  some  have  been  negligent,  I  remark  that  weak  colonies 
and  nuclei  should  be  united  in  preparing  for  winter.  To  do 
this,  approximate  the  colonies  each  day,  four  or  five  feet,  till 
they  are  side  by  side.  Now  remove  the  poorest  queen,  then 
smoke  thoroughly,  sprinkle  both  colonies  with  sweetened  water 
scented  with  essence  of  peppermint,  put  a  sufficient  number  of 
the  best  frames,  alternating  them  as  taken  from  the  hives,  and 
put  all  the  bees  into  one  of  the  hives,  and  then  set  this  midway 
between  the  position  of  the  hives  at  the  commencement  of  the 
uniting.     Shaking  the  bees  in  front  of  the  hive  also  tends  to 


466  THK  bke-keepkr's  guide; 

make  the  union  more  complete.  The  bees  will  unite  peaceably, 
and  make  a  strong  colony.  In  case  of  nuclei  I  usually  unite 
three  for  winter.  Uniting  colonies  may  pay  at  other  seasons. 
It  may  seem  rash  to  some,  yet  I  fully  believe  that  if  the 
above  suggestions  are  carried  out  in  full,  I  may  guarantee 
successful  wintering.  But  if  we  do  lose  our  bees,  having  all 
our  hives,  combs  and  honey,  we  can  buy  colonies  in  the  spring 
with  a  perfect  certainty  of  making  a  good  percent  on  our 
investment.  Even  with  the  worst  condition  of  things,  we  are 
still  ahead,  in  way  of  profit,  of  most  other  vocations. 

BURYING   BEES,  OR   WINTERING  IN   CLAMPS. 

In  principle  this  is  the  same  as  cellar-wintering.  There 
are  two  serious  objections  to  it.  First,  we  do  not  know  that 
the  temperature  is  just  right,  and,  secondly,  if  aught  goes 
wrong  we  know  nothing  of  it— the  bees  are  away  out  of  sight. 
If  this  is  practiced,  the  ground  should  be  either  sandy  or  well 
drained.  If  we  can  choose  a  side-hill  it  should  be  done. 
Beneath  the  hives,  and  around  them,  straw  should  be  placed. 
I  should  advise  leaving  the  entrance  well  open,  yet  secure 
against  mice.  The  hives  should  all  be  placed  beneath  the  sur- 
face level  of  the  earth,  and  a  mound  should  be  raised  above 
them  sufficient  to  preserve  against  extreme  warmth  or  cold. 
A  trench  about  the  mound  to  carry  the  water  off  quickly  is 
desirable.  In  this  arrangement  the  ground  acts  as  a  modera- 
tor. I  would  urge  the  suggestion  that  no  one  try  this  with 
more  than  a  few  colonies,  for  several  years,  till  repeated  suc- 
cesses show  that  it  is  reliable  in  all  seasons.  I  tried  burying 
very  successfully  for  a  time,  then  for  two  winters  lost  heavily. 
These  last  winters  the  bees  would  have  wintered  well  on  their 
summer  stands,  as  the  weather  was  very  warm.  The  bees 
became  too  warm,  and  were  worried  to  death. 

SPRING  DWINDLING. 

In  the  early  years,  before  the  forests  were  cleared  away, 
the  winters  were  less  severe  and  disastrous,  wintering  or 
spring  dwindling  were  seldom  experienced.  The  warmer 
winters,  and  possibly  better  honey  in  the  hive,  were  the  reasons. 

As  already  suggested,  spring  dwindling  is  not  to  be  fe9.red 


OR,   MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  467 

if  we  keep  our  bees  breeding  till  autumn,  prepare  them  well 
and  early  for  winter,  and  use  a  good  cellar  for  wintering.  It 
may  be  further  prevented  by  forbidding  late  autumn  flights, 
frequent  flights  in  winter,  when  the  weather  is  warm,  and  too 
early  flying  in  spring. 

I  am  aware  that  this  matter  of  sprin^r  dwindling  is  most 
stoutly  urged  as  an  objection  to  cellar-wintering,  and  as  an 
argument  in  favor  of  chaff-hives.  I  have  had  excellent  success 
in  cellar-wintering,  and  never  yet  lost  a  colony  by  "spring 
dwindling."  Crowd  the  bees  on  a  few  frames  when  taken 
from  the  cellar ;  give  them  abundant  food  ;  cover  warmly 
above  and  at  the  sides  of  division-boards  with  generous  bags  of 
sawdust,  and  leave  these  on  the  hives  if  the  weather  remains 
cool,  until  we  wish  to  place  the  section  supers  or  extracting 
second  story  on  the  hives,  and  bees  from  the  cellar— a  good 
cellar— will  come  through  the  spring-  in  excellent  condition. 
In  the  winter  of  1881-82,  I  put  some  chaff-hives  into  my  cellar 
alongside  of  my  single-walled  hives,  arranged  as  just 
described,  and  the  bees  in  them  did  no  better  in  spring  after 
removal  from  the  cellar  than  in  other  hives.  Be  sure  in  early 
spring  that  the  bees  have  no  more  combs  than  they  can  cover, 
and  cover  warmly,  and  spring  dwindling  will  lose  its  terror. 
Good  wintering,  and  ample  spring  stores,  are  the  antidote  to 
spring  dwindling.  Never  set  bees  permanently  on  their  sum- 
mer stands  from  the  cellar  till  the  flowers  and  warmth  will 
enable  them  to  work.  Below  60  degrees  F.  in  the  shade  is  too 
cold  for  bees  to  fly.  At  70  degrees  F.  we  may  safely  handle 
our  bees  without  chilling  the  brood.  When  not  clustered,  bees 
chill  at  about  55  degrees. 

I  have  little  doubt  but  that  bees  will  do  better  if  no  breed- 
ing takes  place  in  winter.  Perfect  quiet  should  be  our  desire. 
If  the  bees  have  no  pollen,  of  course  no  breeding  will  take 
place,  and  so  I  advised  its  removal.     It  is  not  for  winter  use. 


468 


THE   BEE-KEhPEK'S   f.UlDK  I 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE   HOUSE-APIARY   xVND  BEE-HOUSE. 

The  house-apiary  (Fig-.  256)  is  a  frost-proof  house  in  which 
the  bees  are  kept  the  year  through.  The  entrances  to  the 
hives  are  through  the  sides  of  the  house,  and  all  manipulation 
of  the  bees  is  carried  on  inside.     From  what  I  have  said  about 

Fig.  256. 


^ 


/f'n,s,-Ajn. ,,■;/.  — J-'rum    A.  J.  J.'no!  r„. 

wintering,  it  at  once  appears  that  such  a  house  should  preserve 
a  uniform  temperature.  As  many  such  houses  were  built  a 
few  years  ago,  and  are  now.  with  very  few  exceptions,  used  for 
other  purposes.  I  would  advise  all  to  study  the  matter  well 
before  building  a  house-apiary.  Where  queen-rearing  is  car- 
ried on  extensively,  or   where  little  room  is   at  command,  they 


OR,    MANUAL  OF  THE   APIARY. 


469 


may  be  desirable.  Several  excellent  bee-keepers  are  now  using- 
them  with  success,  and  great  satisfaction.  The  old-time 
objection,  of  bees  collecting  jn  houses  while  working  with 
them,  is  now  removed,  as  are  the  bees  by  aid  of  bee-escapes. 
If  the  bee-escapes  are  put  on  the  hives  the  night  before,  the 
extracting  or  comb  honey  supers  will  be  practically  free  of 
bees  in  the  morning,  and  all  work  can  be  done  in  the  house 
with  very  slight  annoyance  from  the  presence  of  the  bees.  As 
we  all  know,  cross  colonies  lose  their  pugnacity  if  placed  in  a 
house-apiary.     They  seem  cowed  by  the  enclosure.    The  walls 

Fig.  257. 


House- Apiary  on  Wheels.— From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 


Of  course,  should  be  double,  and  filled  in  with  shavings,  and 
the  hives  should  be  the  same  as  are  used  out-of-doors.  A  mov- 
able house-apiary,  on  wheels  (Fig.  257),  has  been  used,  and  in 
some  cases  may  be  desirable. 

BEE-HOUSES. 

As  a  good  and  convenient  bee-house  is  very  desirable  in 
every  apiary  of  any  considerable  size,  I  will  give  a  few  hints 
in  reference  to  its  construction. 

First,  I  should  have  a  goodceUar  under  the  house,  entirely 
under  ground  so  as  certainly  to  be  frost-proof,  mouse  and  rat 
proof,  thoroughly  grouted,  and  ventilated  as  already  described. 


470 


THE  bee-kbepkr's  gutde; 


I  would  have  three  doors   to  this  from   the  east,  the  outer  one 

inclined.    In  our  college  apiary  we  had  a  vestibule  to  the  cel- 

FiG.  258. 


C^ 


Cellar,  7  feet  high| 
grouved  on  the  bol-  u~ 

torn,  and  plastered, 
with  water-lime  or 
ceiled  above. 


ClKtem.  8  X  14,  , 

oataide  measure,         I 
4>i  ft.  high.  I 


\\ 


30  feci,  oulsiJe  measure. 

Diagram  of  Cellar. 


vsl 


n 


ZYyit..  T>. 

30  ft.,  outside  measure. 


vji:. 


Hard-wood  Floor. 


This  Room 
Lathed  and 
Plastered. 


Diagram  of  First  Floor. — Original. 

lar.  and  four  doors   beside   the   slanting  one,  two  to   the  inner 
one  or  bee-cellar,  and  two  to  the  outer  or  vestibule.     I  should 


OR,  MANUAt  O*'  fHB  APIARY.  4^1 

have  the  entrance  an  inclined  plane,  which,  especially  if  the 
apiary  is  large,  should  be  so  gradual  in  its  descent  that  a  car 
could  pass  down  it  into  the  cellar  on  a  temporary  track.  The 
cellar  should  be  well  drained,  or  if  water  be  permitted  to  pass 
through  it,  this  should  be  kept  in  prescribed  channels.  In  our 
cellar  we  have  a  large  cistern.  This  is  mostly  in  the  outer 
cellar,  but  partly  in  the  inner  or  bee-cellar.  A  tight  partition 
separates  the  two  rooms  except  at  bottom  of  the  cistern.  In 
case  of  large  apiaries  the  track  and  car  make  the  removal  of 
the  bees  to  and  from  the  cellar  an  easy  matter.  The  first  floor 
I  should  have,  if  my  apiary  was  large,  on  a  level  with  the 
ground.  This  (Fig.  258)  should  contain  three  rooms,  one  on 
the  north  for  a  shop,  one  on  the  southeast  for  comb  honey,  and 
one  on  the  southwest  for  extracting,  and  storing  extracted 
honey  and  brood-combs.  For  100  colonies  of  bees,  this  build- 
ing need  not  be  more  than  20x24  feet.  A  chimney  should  pass 
from  the  attic  at  the  common  angle  of  these  three  rooms 
through  the  roof.  Wide  doors  on  the  south,  if  the  apiary  is 
large,  should  permit  the  car  to  enter  either  of  the  rooms  on 
an  extemporized  track,  whenever  extracting  or  taking  oflf  comb 
honey  is  in  operation. 

The  house  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  always  free 
from  rats  and  mice.  In  summer,  wire-gauze  doers  should  be 
used,  also  wire-gauze  window-screens  made  to  swing  out  like 
common  window-blinds.  Ours  are  single,  not  double,  light, 
and  so  hung  that  when  opened  they  remain  so  till  shut.  At 
the  top  the  gauze  extends  outside  the  upper  piece  of  the  frame, 
and  is  separated  from  it  by  a  bee-space  width.  At  the  top  a 
few  three-eighths  inch  round  holes  are  made.  This  permits 
all  bees  to  leave  the  house,  while  the  character  of  the  opening 
precludes  outside  bees  from  entering.  Inside  doors  should  per- 
mit our  passing  directly  from  any  of  these  rooms  to  the  others. 
The  position  of  the  chimney  makes  it  easy  to  have  a  fire  in 
any  of  the  rooms.  This  would  be  desirable  in  the  shop,  in 
winter,  when  hive-making,  etc.,  is  in  operation,  or  when  visit- 
'ng  with  other  bee-keepers  is  in  progress.  The  ripening  of 
honey  or  late  extracting  make  it  often  desirable  to  have  a  fire 
in  the  extracting-room.  If  comb  honey  is  kept  in  the  desig- 
nated room  late  in  the  season,  it  is  desirable  to  warm  that 


472  THE  beb-keepkr's  guide; 

room.  Of  course,  a  large  stove  in  the  shop  might  be  made  to 
heat  any  or  all  of  the  rooms.  I  would  have  the  comb-honey 
room  very  tight,  and  ventilated  by  an  easily  regulated  slide 
into  the  chimney  for  the  purpose  of  easy  fumigation. 

The  extractor-room  should  have  close,  moth-proof  cup- 
boards for  receiving  brood-combs.  Those  in  our  house  are 
high  enough  for  three  rows  of  frames,  and  wide  enough  just 
to  receive  the  top-bar  of  a  frame  crosswise.  Cleats  nailed  on 
to  the  inside  hold  the  frames,  which  are  turned  diagonally  a 
little  to  pass  them  to  the  lower  tier.  This  room  ought  also  to 
have  a  table  for  work,  uncapping-box  (Fig.  156),  and  large  open 
tanks,  open  barrels,  or  extractor-cans,  to  hold  the  honey  while 
it  ripens.  If  the  building  is  painted  dark,  this  room  will  be 
warmer  in  summer.  The  warmer  it  becomes  the  more  rapidly 
the  honey  thickens. 

A  chamber  above  costs  but  little,  and  serves  admirably  as 
a  place  for  storage.  This  may  be  entered  by  stairs  from  the 
shop. 

A  neat  bench  and  sharp  tools,  all  conveniently  placed, 
make  the  shop  a  very  desirable  fixture  to  every  apiary. 

I  have  spoken  of  a  car  and  track  in  large  apiaries ;  such 
an  arrangement,  which  costs  but  little,  is  exceedingly  desir- 
able. The  tracks  run  close  to  the  rows  of  hives,  and  by  means 
of  simple  switches,  the  car  can  be  run  anywhere  in  the  apiary. 


OR,   MANUAl,  OF  THE)  APIARY.  473 


CHAPTER  XX. 

EVIL,S  THAT  CONFRONT  THE  APIARIST. 

There  are  various  dangers  that  are  likely  to  vex  the  api- 
arist, and  even  to  stand  in  the  way  of  successful  apiculture. 
Yet,  with  knowledge,  most,-if  not  all,  of  these  evils  may  be 
wholly  vanquished.  Among  these  are  :  Robbing  among  the 
bees,  disease,  and  depredations  from  other  animals. 

ROBBING. 

This  is  a  trouble  that  often  very  greatly  annoys  the  inex- 
perienced. Whenever  bees  leave  the  hives,  except  at  a  time  of 
swarming,  with  the  honey-stomach  full,  we  may  be  sure  rob- 
bing is  in  the  air.  Bees  only  rob  at  such  times  as  the  general 
scarcity  of  nectar  forbids  honest  gains.  When  the  question 
comes:  Famine  or  theft?  like  many  another,  they  are  not 
slow  to  choose  the  latter.  It  is  often  induced  by  working  with 
the  bees  at  such  times,  especially  if  honey  is  scattered  about  or 
left  lying  around  the  apiary.  It  is  especially  to  be  feared  in 
spring,  when  colonies  are  apt  to  be  weak  in  both  honey  and 
bees,  and  thus  are  unable  to  protect  their  own  meager  stores. 
The  remedies  for  this  evil  are  not  far  to  seek  : 

First. — Strong  colonies  are  very  rarely  molested,  and  are 
almost  sure  to  defend  themselves  against  marauders  ;  hence, 
it  is  only  the  weaklings  of  the  apiarist's  flock  that  are  in  dan- 
ger. Therefore,  regard  for  our  motto,  "  Keep  all  colonies 
strong,"  will  secure  against  harm  from  this  cause. 

Second. — Italians — the  Cyprians  and  Syrians  are  even 
more  spirited  in  this  work  of  defense  than  are  the  Italians — as 
before  stated,  are  fully  able,  and  quite  as  ready,  to  protect 
their  rights  against  neighboring  tramps.  Woe  be  to  the 
thieving  bee  that  dares  to  violate  the  sacred  rig  rts  of  the  home 
of  our  beautiful  Italians,  for  such  temerity  is  almost  sure  to 
cost  the  intruder  its  life. 

But  weak  colonies,  like  our  nuclei,  and  black  bees,  are  still 


474  THE  bee-keeper's  guide; 

easily  kept  from  harm.  Usually,  the  closing  of  the  entrance, 
so  that  but  a  single  bee  can  pass  through,  is  all  sufficient.  Mr. 
Jones  closes  the  entrance  by  use  of  wet  grass,  straw,  or  shav- 
ings. Mr.  Hayhurst  places  a  frame  six  inches  by  eighteen 
inches  covered  by  wire-gauze  over  the  entrance.  This  keeps 
the  robbers  out,  and  still  affords  ventilation. 

Another  way  to  secure  such  colonies  against  robbing  is  to 
move  them  into  the  cellar  for  a  few  days.  This  is  a  further 
advantage,  as  less  food  is  eaten,  and  the  strength  of  the  indi- 
vidual bees  is  conserved  by  the  quiet,  and  as  there  is  no  nectar 
in  the  fields  no  loss  is  suffered.  Mr.  Root  recommends  "quiet  " 
robbing  at  such  times  to  cure  robbing.  He  places  hives  con- 
taining honey  near  by,  with  the  entrances  so  contracted  that 
only  one  bee  can  enter  at  a  time.  The  bees  seem  to  prefer 
this  quiet,  unresisted  robbing,  and  cease  from  the  other.  This, 
of  course,  would  be  expensive  in  case  other  apiaries  were  near 
by.  It  is  a  good  way  to  get  partially  filled  sections  or  combs 
emptied.  It  works  very  well  in  case  we  give  them  access  to  a 
larger  quantity  of  honey,  else  robbing  may  still  be  kept  up. 

In  all  the  work  of  the  apiary  at  times  of  no  honey-gathei> 
ing,  we  can  not  be  too  careful  to  keep  all  honey  from  the  bees 
unless  placed  in  the  hives.  The  hives,  too,  should  not  be  kept 
open  long  at  a  time.  Neat,  quick  work  should  be  the  watch- 
word. .Mr.  Root  does  necessary  work  at  such  times  by  night, 
using  a  lantern.  I  do  not  like  night  work ;  the  bees  crawl 
about  one's  clothes,  and  often  reach  quite  objectionable  places. 
During  times  when  robbers  are  essaying  to  practice  their 
nefarious  designs,  the  bees  are  likely  to  be  more  than  usually 
irritable,  and  likely  to  resent  intrusion ;  hence,  the  impor- 
tance of  more  than  usual  caution,  if  it  is  desired  to  introduce  a 
queen.  Working  under  the  bee-tent  (Figs.  158  and  166)  prevents 
all  danger  of  inciting  the  bees  to  rob.  Dr.  Miller  inserts  a 
funnel-shaped  (Fig.  159)  bee-escape  in  the  top  of  the  tent.  Such 
a  tent  might  be  placed  over  the  colony  being  robbed.  Mr. 
Doolittle  prizes  highly  a  common  sheet  in  the  apiary.  In  case 
of  robbing  he  covers  the  entire  hive  being  robbed  with  this 
sheet. 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THE   APIARY.  475 

DISEASE. 

The  common  dysentery — indicated  by  the  bees  soiling 
their  hives,  as  they  void  their  faeces  within  instead  of  without 
— which  so  frequently  works  havoc  in  our  apiaries,  is,  without 
doubt,  I  think,  consequent  upon  wrong  management  on  the 
part  of  the  apiarist,  poor  honey,  like  cider,  rotten  apple-juice, 
rank  honey-dew,  or  burnt  sugar,  or  bad  wintering,  usually  the 
result  of  severe  weather,  as  already  suggested  in  Chapter 
XVIII.  As  the  methods  to  prevent  this  have  already  been 
sufficiently  considered,  we  pass  to  the  terrible 

FOUL  BROOD. 

This  disease,  said  to  have  been  known  to  Aristotle — 
though  this  is  doubtful,  as  a  stench  attends  common  dysen- 
tery— though  it  has  occurred  in  our  State  as  well  as  in  States 
about  us,  is  not  very  familiar  to  me.  Of  late  I  receive  many 
samples  of  this  affected  brood  each  season.  It  is  causing  sad 
havoc  in  many  regions  of  our  country.  No  bee-malady  can 
compare  with  this  in  malignancy.  By  it  Dzierzon  once  lost 
his  whole  apiary  of  500  cplonies.  Mr.  E.  Rood,  first  President 
of  the  Michigan  Association,  lost  all  his  bees  two  or  three 
times  by  this  terrible  plague. 

The  symptoms  are  as  follows  :  Decline  in  the  prosperity 
of  the  colony,  because  of  failure  to  rear  brood.  The  brood 
seems  to  putrefy,  becomes  "brown  and  salvy,"  and  gives  off 
a  stench  which  is  by  no  means  agreeable.  With  a  slight 
attack,  the  bad  smell  is  not  apparent.  In  a  close  box  very 
little  of  the  brood  gives  the  characteristic  odor.  I  often  detect 
it  in  boxes  received  by  mail  before  I  open  them.  L<ater  the 
caps  are  concave  instead  of  convex,  and  many  will  have  little 
holes  through  them.  Holes  will  often  be  found  in  healthy 
brood-cells.  As  the  cappings  were  never  completed,  such  holes 
are  smooth  at  the  margins,  while  those  of  foul  brood  are  jag- 
ged. The  most  decided  symptom  is  the  salvy,  elastic  mass  in 
the  brood-cell.  With  a  pin-head  we  never  draw  forth  a  larva 
or  pupa,  but  this  brown,  stringy  mass  which  afterwards  dries 
down  in  the  cell,  when  it  lets  go  of  the  pin-head,  because  of 
its  elasticity,  it  flies  or  springs  back.  This  is  sometimes  less 
marked. 


476 


THE  beb-keeper's  guide; 


Foul  Bfoad  Photographed.— From  A.  I.  Boot  Co. 


OR,  MANUAI,   OF    THB   APIARY.  477 

There  is  no  longer  any  doubt  as  to  the  cause  of  this  fearful 
plague.  Uke  the  fell  "Pebrine,"  which  came  so  near  exter- 
minating the  silk-worm,  and  a  most  lucrative  and  extensive 
industry  in  Europe,  it,  as  conclusively  shown  by  Drs.  Preusz 
and  Schonfeld,  of  Germany,  is  the  result  of  minute  parasitic 
organisms.  Schonfeld  not  only  infected  healthy  bee-larvae, 
but  those  of  other  insects,  both  by  means  of  the  putrescent 
foul  brood  and  by  taking  the  spores.     Professor  Cohn  discov- 

FiG.  260. 


Healthy  Stage.  Early  Stage. 

Foul  Brood— From  A.  I.  Root  Co. 


ered,  in  1874,  that  the  cause  of  foul  brood  was  a  microbe, 
Bacillus  alveolaris.  Mr.  Hilbert,  the  following  year,  showed 
that  these  micro-organisms  existed  in  the  mature  bees  as  well 
as  in  the  brood.  Later  Mr.  Cheshire  gave  the  microbe  the 
name  of  Bacillus  alvei. 

Fungoid  growths  are  very  minute,  and  the  spores  are  so 
infinitesimally  small  as  often  to  elude  the  sharp  detection  of 
the  expert  microscopist.  Most  of  the  terrible  contagious  dis- 
eases that   human   flesh   is   heir  to— like  typhus,  diphtheria. 


478 


THB  BEE-KEEPER  S  GUIDE 


cholera,  smallpox,  etc. — are  now  known  to  be  due  to  micro- 
scopic germs,  and  hence  to  be  spread  from  home  to  home,  and 
from  hamlet  to  hamlet,  it  is  only  necessary  that  the  germs  or 
the  contained  spores,  the  minute  seeds,  either  by  contact  or  by 
some  sustaining  air  current,  be  brought  to  new  soil  of  flesh, 
blood,  or  other  tissue — their  garden-spot — when  they  at  once 
spring  into  growth,  and  thus  lick  up  the  very  vitality  of  their 
victims.  The  huge  mushroom-  will  grow  in  a  night.  So,  too, 
these  other  plants — the  disease-germs — will  develop  with  mar- 

FiG.  261. 


Middle  Stage.  Late  Stage. 

Foul  Brood. — From  A.  I.  Root  Go. 


velous  rapidity  ;  and,  hence,  the  horrors  of  yellow  fever,  scar- 
letina  and  cholera.  The  foul-brood  Bacillus,  like  all  bacilli, 
is  rod-shaped  (Fig.  261).  The  spore  develops  in  one  end,  which 
becomes  slightly  enlarged. 

To  cure  such  diseases  the  microbes  must  be  killed.  To 
prevent  their  spread  they  must  be  destroyed,  or  else  confined. 
But  as  these  are  so  small,  so  light,  and  so  invisible — easily 
borne  and  wafted  by  the  slightest  zephyr  of  summer — this  is 
often  a  matter  of  the  utmost  difficulty. 


OR,   MANUAi;  OF  THE  APIARY.  479 

In  "foul  brood"  these  germs  feed  on  the  larvae  of  the 
bees,  and  thus  convert  life  and  vigor  into  death  and  decay.  If 
we  can  kill  this  miniature  forest  of  the  hive,  and  destroy  the 
spores,  we  shall  extirpate  the  terrible  plague.  The  spores 
resist  heat,  are  more  tenacious  of  life,  and  more  difficult  to 
kill  than  are  the  bacilli  themselves. 

Some  of  the  facts  connected  with  "  foul  brood "  would 
lead  us  to  think  that  the  germs  or  spores  of  this  fungus  are 
only  conveyed  in  the  honey.  This  supposition,  alone,  enables 
us  to  understand  one  of  the  remedies  which  some  of  our  ablest 
apiarists  hold  to  be  entirely  sure. 

REMEDIES. 
"Prevention  is  better  than  cure."  In  case  foul  brood, 
black  brood,  or  any  suspected  germ  malady  is  in  the  neighbor- 
hood or  apiary,  it  will  always  be  wise  to  feed  medicated  syrup. 
Beta  napthol  is  now  preferred,  as  it  is  non-odorous,  and  not 
ofiFensive  to  the  bees.  Mr.  Thos.  W.  Cowan  uses  this  success- 
fully as  follows  :  One  ounce  of  the  powder  is  put  into  a  half- 
pint  bottle  ;  just  enough  wood  alcohol  is  added  to  dissolve  it 
fully,  when  the  bottle  is  filled  with  water.  This  will  medicate 
280  pounds  of  syrup,  made  by  mixing  140  pounds  each  of  water 
and  granulated  sugar.  The  solution  and  mixing  can  best  be 
performed  by  use  of  the  extractor.  Gentle  turning  soon  dis- 
solves the  sugar,  and  thoroughly  mixes  the  beta  napthol.  Thus 
we  use  no  heat.     (See  page  266.) 

TO  CURE. 

No  doubt  Mr.  Hilbert,  of  Germany,  cured  foul  brood  by 
use  of  salicylic  acid.  Mr.  Muth  did  the  same,  and  rendered 
the  solution  more  easy  by  adding  borax.  That  this  extract  of 
the  willow  is  a  powerful  germicide  is  well  known.  In  the  cure 
of  foul  brood  it  has  so  often  proved  a  partial  or  complete  fail- 
ure, that  no  one,  except  for  experiment,  can  afford  to  use  it 
in  this  warfare  at  all. 

In  1874,  Bontleroff,  of  Russia,  suggested  the  use  of  car- 
bolic acid  or  phenol  as  a  cure  of  foul  brood.  Dr.  Preusz  also 
thought  very  highly  of  it.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this  is  also 
a  very  excellent  bacillicide.  Only  the  purest  crystals  of  th*? 
?,cid  should  be  used.     To  use  this  to  medicate  the  syrup— one- 


480  THE  BEE-KEEPER'S  GUIDE  ; 

fortieth  of  an  ounce  to  a  pound  of  syrup — would  be  wise  as  a 
prevention  except  that,  as  stated  above,  beta  napthoi  is  pref- 
erable. But,  like  salicylic  acid,  these  carbolic  acid  derivatives 
are  too  uncertain.  So  many  have  failed  to  cure  with  these 
remedies. 

So  long  as  we  have  a  safe,  sure  remedy  which  works  in 
the  hands  of  all,  we  can  illy  afford  to  risk  our  success  with 
remedies  that  so  generally  fail. 

Mr.  D.  A.  Jones,  and  scores  of  others,  are  successful  with 
what  is  termed  the  starvation  method  :  The  bees  are  drummed 
into  an  empty  hive,  placed  in  a  cellar,  and  given  no  food 
for  three  or  four  days,  till  they  have  digested  all  honey  in  their 
stomachs.  They  are  then  given  foundation  and  food,  and  the 
combs  melted  for  wax,  the  honey  scalded,  and  the  hives 
scalded  thoroughly  before  being  again  used.  It  would  seem 
that  the  spores  are  in  the  honey — we  know  surely  that  they 
are  in  the  chyle,  though  Schonfeld  finds  that  they  are  not  in 
the  blood  of  the  bee — and  by  taking  that,  the  contagion  is 
administered  to  the  young  bees.  The  honey  may  be  purified 
from  these  noxious  germs  by  subjecting  it  to  the  boiling  tem- 
perature, which  is  generally,  if  not  always,  fatal  to  the  spores 
of  fungoid  life.  The  microbe  is  killed  surely  by  a  tempera- 
ture even  less  than  the  usual  boiling,  212  degrees  F.  The 
spores,  however,  are  only  killed  by  prolonged  boiling.  So  we 
better  add  water  to  the  honey  and  then  boil  for  an  hour  to 
make  it  safe,  after  which  the  honey  may  be  safely  fed.  Some 
of  wide  experience  say  that  it  is  safe  to  use  the  hives,  even 
though  they  have  not  been  boiled.  Mr.  McEvoy,  of  Ontario, 
after  his  very  extensive  experience,  urges  this.  The  combs 
are  melted  for  wax.  The  disease  is  probably  spread  by  robber- 
bees  visiting  affected  hives,  and  carrying  with  them  in  the 
honey  the  fatal  germs.  Mr.  Doolittle,  after  some  experience, 
agrees  with  the  lamented  Quinby,  that  it  is  not  necessary  to 
cause  the  bees  to  fast  as  described  by  Mr.  Jones.  They  can  at 
once  be  hived  safely  on  foundation.  In  this  case,  all  honey  is 
used  up  before  any  brood  is  present  to  be  fed.  To  secure  this, 
they  are  after  four  days  changed  again  on  to  new  foundation. 
We  must  in  all  this  be  most  careful  not  to  scatter  honey,  or  to 
permit  a  single  robber-bee  to  get  at  it.     Great  care,  and  the 


OR,   MANXJAI,  OF  THS  APIARY.  481 

wisest  exercise  of  judgment,  is  all  important.  A  wee  blunder, 
or  little  carelessness,  may  spread  the  evil  rather  than  effect  a 
cure. 

From  this  remedy  it  would  seem  certain  that  the  germs  are 
in  the  honey. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  it  is  easy  to  scatter  these 
fatal  germs,  and  whatever  cure  is  adopted,  too  great  care  can 
not  be  exercised.  Mr.  R.  L.  Taylor  tells  me  that  after  an 
experience  of  two  years  he  does  not  greatly  fear  this  malady. 
He  finds  it  easy,  by  means  of  the  fasting  cure,  and  free  use  of 
carbolic  acid,  to  hold  it  in  check  or  to  cure  it.  Yet  he  admits 
that  without  much  care  and  judgment  it  might  work  fearful 
havoc. 

(I  have  found  that  a  paste  made  of  gum  tragacanth  and 
water  is  very  superior,  and  I  much  prefer  it  for  either  general 
or  special  use  to  gum  arable.  Yet  it  soon  sours— which  means 
that  it  is  nourishing  these  fungoid  plants— and  thus  becomes 
disagreeable.  I  have  found  that  a  very  little  salicylic  acid 
will  render  it  sterile,  and  thus  preserve  it  indefinitely.) 

BBK-PARALYSIS. 

This  is  a  common  malady,  more  serious,  it  is  claimed,  in 
the  warmer  parts  of  the  country.  The  bees  become  black, 
show  a  curious  trembling  motion,  and  are  often  dragged  from 
the  hive.  Often  so  many  die  that  the  colony  is  seriously 
depleted.  Change  of  queen  is  often  a  cure.  Spraying  with 
salt  water  has  been  thought  to  be  of  service.  I  believe  this  to 
be  a  fungoid  disease,  and,  if  so,  feeding  the  medicated  syrup 
(page  479)  will  be  a  wise  practice.  I  have  often  seen  this 
trouble  in  my  apiary,  but  it  always  disappeared  with  no  serious 
harm. 

NEW  BEH-DISEASE. 

In  California  and  some  other  sections,  the  brood  dies  with- 
out losing  its  form.  We  use  the  pin-head,  and  we  draw  forth 
a  larva  much  discolored,  often  black,  bat  not  at  all  like  the 
salvy  mass  that  we  see  in  foul  brood.  This  is  doubtless  a 
germ  disease,  which  I  have  greatly  mitigated  by  simply  feed- 
ing. I  believe  with  this  and  the  similar,  if  not  identical  black 
brood,  and  all  kindred  maladies,  we  should  feed  freely  with 


482  THE  BEE-KKKPER'S  GUIDE; 

the  medicated  syrup.  The  removal  of  old  combs  and  honey, 
forcing  the  bees  to  build  new,  thus  to  remove  germs  would  also 
abet  the  cure. 

Black  brood  is  not  ropy  like  foul  brood,  and  the  brood 
shows  afifection  earlier.  It  is  serious  in  New  York,  and  is 
treated  precisely  as  is  foul  brood.  The  bees  are  transferred 
to  other  hives  on  starters  of  foundation,  and  this  repeated  in 
four  days. 

ENEMIES  OF  BEES. 

Swift  was  no  mean  entomologist,  as  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing stanza : 

"  The  little  fleas  that  do  us  tease, 
Have  lesser  fleas  to  bite  them, 
And  these  again  have  lesser  fleas, 
And  so  ad  infinitum. ^^ 

Bees  are  no  exception  to  this  law,  as  they  have  to  brave 
the  attacks  of  reptiles,  birds,  and  other  insects.  In  fact,  they 
are  beset  with  perils  at  home  and  perils  abroad,  perils  by  night 
and  perils  by  day. 

THE    BEE-MOTH — GALLERIA   MEI,I<ONEI,I«A. 

This  insect,  formerly  known  as  G.  cereana,  belongs  to  the 
family  of  snout-moths,  Pyralidse.  This  snout  is  not  the 
tongue,  but  the  palpi,  which  fact  was  not  known  by  Mr.  lyang- 
stroth,  who  was  usually  so  accurate,  as  he  essayed  to  correct 
Dr.  Harris,  who  stated  correctly  that  the  tongue  was  "very 
short  and  hardly  visible."  This  family  includes  the  destruc- 
tive hop-moth,  and  the  noxious  meal  and  clover  moths,  and  its 
members  are  very  readily  recognized  by  their  usually  long 
palpi,  the  so-called  snouts.  The  family  is  now  more  restricted, 
and  named  Galleriidse. 

The  eggs  of  the  bee-moth  are  white,  globular,  and  very 
small.  These  are  usually  pushed  into  crevices  by  the  female 
moth  as  she  extrudes  them,  which  she  can  easily  do  by  aid  of 
her  spy-glass-like  ovipositor.  They  may  be  laid  in  the  hive, 
in  the  crevice  underneath  it,  or  about  the  entrance.  Soon 
these  eggs  hatch,  when  the  gray,  dirty-looking  caterpillars, 
with  brown  heads,  seek  the  comb  on  which  they  feed.  To  pro- 
tect themselves  better  from  the  bees,  they  wrap  themselves  ia 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY. 


483 


a  silken  tube  (Fig-.  262),  which  they  have  power  to  spin.  They 
remain  in  this  tunnel  of  silk  during-  all  their  growth,  enlarg- 
ing it  as  they  eat.  The  noise,  as  they  eat,  can  be  heard 
plainly    by  holding  the    comb   to  the  ear.     As  they  tunnel 


Fig.  262. 


Fig.  263. 


Tumtel  of  Bte-Moth  Larva. — Oriffhial. 


Tunnel  in  Comb.—Oi'lgiual. 


among  the  larvai  in  brood-combs,  the  larvae  are  destroyed,  and 
will  be  removed  from  the  hives.  Thus,  the  presence  of  dead 
larvae  in  front  of  the  hive  is  often  a  sign  of  the  presence  of 
insects  in  the  hive.     By  looking  closely,  the  presence  of  these 


Lnrtia  of  Bee-Jfoth.—Origittat. 

larvae  may  be  known  by  this  robe  of  glistening  silk,  as  it 
extends  in  branching  outlines  (Fig.  263)  along  the  surface  of 
the  comb.  A  more  speedy  detection,  even,  than  the  defaced 
comb,  comes  from  the  particles  of  comb,  intermingled  with 


484 


THE  BEE-KEEPER'S  GUIDE; 


the  powder-like  droppings  of  the  caterpillars,  •which  will 
always  be  seen  on  the  bottom-board  in  case  the  moth-larvae 
are  at  work.  Soon,  in  three  or  four  weeks,  the  larvae  are  fall 
grown  (Fig.  264).  Now  the  six-jointed  and  the  ten  prop-legs — 
making  sixteen  in  all,  the  usual  number  possessed  by  cater- 
pillars—are  plainly  visible.  These  larvae  are  about  an  inch 
long,  and  show  by  their  plump  appearance  that  they  at  least 
can  digest  comb.  However,  though  these  are  styled  wax- 
moths  they  must  have  either  pollen  or  dead  bees  to  mingle 
with  their  wax.  While  it  is  true  that  there  is  a  little  nitrogen- 
ous material  in  wax,  there  is  not  enough  so  that  even  the  wax- 


FiG.  266. 


Bee-Moih.—OrigiwA. 


Cocoons. — Original. 


moth  larva  could  thrive  on  it  alone.  They  now  spin  their 
cocoons,  either  in  some  crevice  about  the  hive,  or,  if  very 
numerous,  singly  (Fig.  265,  a)  or  in  clusters  (Fig.  265,  b)  on  the 
comb,  or  even  in  the  drone-cells  (Fig.  265,  c),  in  which  they 
become  pupae,  and  in  two  weeks,  even  less  sometimes,  during 
the  extreme  heat  of  summer,  the  moths  again  appear.  In 
winter  they  may  remain  as  pupae  for  months.  The  moths  or 
millers — sometimes  incorrectly  called  moth-millers— are  of  an 
obscure  gray  color,  and  thus  so  mimic  old  boards  that  they  are 
very  readily  passed  unobserved  by  the  apiarist.  They  are 
about  three- fourths  of  an  inch  long,  and  expand  (Fig.  266) 


Or,   MANUAt  OF  THE  APIARY.  485 

nearly  one  and  one-fourth  inches.  The  females  are  darker 
than  the  males,  possess  a  longer  snout,  and  are  usually  a  little 
larger.  The  wings,  when  the  moths  are  quiet,  are  flat  on  the 
back  for  a  narrow  space,  then  slope  very  abruptly.  They  rest 
by  day,  yet,  when  disturbed,  will  dart  forth  with  great  swift- 
ness, so  Reaumur  styled  them  "nimble-footed."  They  are 
active  by  night,  when  they  essay  to  enter  the  hive  and  deposit 
their  one  or  two  hundred  eggs.  If  the  females  are  held  in  the 
hand  they  will  often  extrude  their  eggs ;  in  fact,  they  have 
been  known  to  do  this  even  after  the  head  and  thorax  were 
severed  from  the  abdomen,  and,  still  more  strange,  while  the 
latter  was  being  dissected. 

It  is  generally  stated  that  these  are  two-brooded,  the  first 
moths  occurring  in  May,  the  second  in  August.  Yet,  as  I  have 
seen  these  moths  in  every  month  from  May  to  September,  and 
as  I  have  proved  by  actual  observation  that  they  may  pass 
from  egg  to  moth  in  less  than  six  weeks,  I  think  under  favor- 
able conditions  there  may  be  even  three  broods  a  year.  It  is 
true  that  the  varied  conditions  of  temperature— as  the  moth- 
larvs  may  grow  in  a  deserted  hive,  in  one  with  few  bees,  or 
one  crowded  with  bee-life— will  have  much  to  do  with  the 
rapidity  of  development.  Circumstances  may  so  retard  growth 
and  development  that  there  may  be,  not  more  than  two,  and  pos- 
sibly, in  extreme  cases,  not  more  than  one  brood  in  a  season. 

It  is  stated  by  Mr.  Quinby  that  a  freezing  temperature 
will  kill  these  insects  in  all  stages,  while  Mr.  Betsinger  thinks 
that  a  deserted  hive  is  safe ;  neither  of  which  assertions  is 
entirely  correct.  Still,  I  believe  exposure  of  combs  to  cold  the 
winter  through  would  kill  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  bee-moth 
larvae.  I  believe,  in  very  mild  winters,  the  moth  and  the 
chrysalids  might  be  so  protected  as  to  escape  unharmed,  even 
outside  the  hive.  It  is  probable,  too,  that  the  insects  may  pass 
the  winter  in  any  one  of  the  various  stages,  though  they  gen- 
erally exist  as  pupae  during  the  cold  season. 


These  moths  were  known  to  writers  of  antiquity,  as  even 
Aristotle  tells  of  their  injuries.  They  are  wholly  of  Oriental 
origin,  and  are  often  referred  to  by  European  writers  as  a 


486  THE  BEB-KKEPBR'S  GUIDE  ', 

terrible  pest.  The  late  Dr.  Kirtland,  the  able  scientist,  and 
first  president  of  our  American  bee-association,  once  said  in  a 
letter  to  Mr.  L<angstroth,  that  the  moth  was  first  introduced 
into  America  in  1805,  though  bees  had  been  introduced  long 
before.  They  first  seemed  to  be  very  destructive.  It  is  quite 
probable,  as  has  been  suggested,  that  the  bees  had  to  learn  to 
fear  and  repel  them  ;  for,  unquestionably,  the  bees  do  grow  in 
wisdom.  In  fact,  may  not  the  whole  of  instinct  be  inherited 
knowledge,  which  once  had  to  be  acquired  by  the  animal  ? 
Surely  bees  and  other  animals  learn  to  battle  new  enemies, 
and  vary  their  habits  with  changed  conditions,  and  they  also 
transmit  this  knowledge  and  their  acquired  habits  to  their 
offspring,  as  illustrated  by  setter  and  pointer  dogs.  In  time, 
may  not  this  account  for  all  those  varied  actions,  usually 
ascribed  to  instinct  ?  At  least  I  believe  the  bee  to  be  a  crea- 
ture of  no  small  intelligence. 

REMEDIES. 

In  Europe,  late  writers  give  very  little  space  to  this  moth. 
Once  a  serious  pest,  it  has  now  ceased  to  alarm,  or  even  to 
disquiet  the  intelligent  apiarist.  In  fact,  we  may  almost  call 
it  a  blessed  evil,  as  it  will  destroy  the  bees  of  the  heedless,  and 
thus  prevent  injury  to  the  markets  by  their  unsalable  honey, 
while  to  the  attentive  bee-keeper  it  will  work  no  injury  at  all. 
Neglect  and  ignorance  are  the  moth-breeders. 

As  already  stated,  Italian  bees  are  rarely  injured  by 
moths,  and  strong  colonies  never.  As  the  enterprising  api- 
arist will  possess  only  these,  it  is  clear  that  he  is  free  from 
danger.  The  intelligent  apiarist  will  also  provide  not  only 
against  weak  but  queenless  colonies  as  well,  which,  from  their 
abject  discouragement,  are  the  surest  victims  to  moth  inva- 
sion. Knowing  that  destruction  is  sure,  they  seem,  if  not  to 
court  death,  to  make  no  effort  to  delay  it. 

As  my  friend.  Judge  W.  H.  Andrews,  asserts,  no  bees, 
black  or  Italian,  will  be  troubled  with  these  insects  so  long  as 
all  the  combs  are  covered  with  bees. 

In  working  with  bees  an  occasional  web  will  be  seen  glis- 
tening in  the  comb,  which  should  be  picked  out  with  a  knife 
till  the  manufacturer — the  ruthless  larva — is  found,  when  it 


OR,  MANUAI,   OF   THB   APIARY.  487 

should  be  crushed.  Any  larva  seen  about  the  bottom-board, 
seeking  place  to  spin  its  cocoon,  or  any  pup^,  either  on  comb 
or  in  crack,  should  also  be  killed.  If,  through  carelessness,  a 
colony  has  become  thoroughly  victimized  by  these  filthy  wax- 
devourers,  then  the  bees  and  any  combs  not  attacked  should 
be  transferred  to  another  hive,  after  which  the  old  hive  should 
be  sulphured  by  use  of  the  smoker,  as  before  described  ;  then 
by  giving  one  or  two  each  of  the  remaining  combs  to  strong 
colonies,  after  killing  any  pups  that  may  be  on  them,  they 
will  be  cleaned  and  used,  while  by  giving  the  enfeebled  colony 
brood,  and  if  necessary  a  good  queen,  if  it  has  any  vigor 
remaining  it  will  soon  be  rejoicing  in  strength  and  prosperity. 
We  have  already  spoken  of  caution  as  to  comb  honey  and 
frames  of  comb  (page  380),  and  so  need  not  speak  further  of 
them. 

THE  WBE  BEB-MOTH. 

In  1887  another  smaller  moth  attacked  comb  in  New  York 
and  Michigan.  Mr.  W.  J.  Ellison,  of  South  Carolina,  wrote 
me  that  this  insect  does  much  harm  in  his  State.  It  is  Ephestia 

Fig.  267. 


Wee  Bee-Moth. — Original.  Wing. — Original. 

interpunctella.  Hub.,  and  belongs  to  the  same  family  of  moths, 
Pyralidae,  or  snout-moths,  that  contains  the  old  bee-moth.  I 
shall  call  this  (Fig.  267)  the  Wee  bee-moth.  The  moths  lay 
eggs  in  July  and  August,  upon  the  comb.  The  larvae  feed  in 
August,  September  and  October  upon  the  pollen,  and  do  mis- 
chief by  spreading  a  thin  layer  of  silk  over  the  combs.  Mr. 
Ellison  says  the  web  on  the  comb  honey  is  no  small  injury. 
Very  likely  there  is  an  early  summer  brood. 


The  only  suggestion   I  can   offer  at  present  is  that  the 
combs  shall  not  be  exposed.    Fumigation,  of  course,  either 


488  THB  bee-keeper's  guide  ; 

with  the  bisulphide  of  carbon  or  sulphur  fumes,  will  destroy 
these  also,  and  might  be  desirable  in  case  comb  honey  is 
injured. 

TWO  DESTRUCTIVE  BEETI^ES. 

There  are  two  destructive  beetles  that  often  work  on  the 
comb,  more,  however,  for  the  pollen  and  dead  bees  than  for 
the  wax.  One  of  these,  Tenebrio  molitor,  L/inn.,  is.  the 
common  flour  or  meal  beetle.  It  is  dark  brown  in  color,  and 
five-eighths  of  an  inch  (16  mm.)  long.  The  larva  or  grub  is  of 
a  lighter  color,  and  when  fully  developed  is  one  inch  (25  mm.) 
long.  It  resembles  very  closely  the  larva  of  our  Elater  beetles 
— the  wire-worms.  The  other  is  the  bacon  beetle,  Dermestes 
lardarius,  Linn.  (Fig.  268),  which  is  a  sore  pest  in  museums, 

Fig.  268. 


I 


D.  Lardarius. — Original. 

as  it  feeds  on  all  kinds  of  dried  animal  tissues.  The  beetle  is 
black,  while  nearly  one-half  of  the  wing-covers,  next  to  the 
thorax,  are  yellowish-gray,  lined  in  the  middle  with  black. 
The  beetle  is  three-eighths  of  an  inch  (10  mm.)  long.  The 
larva  is  some  longer,  very  hairy,  and  ringed  with  brown  and 
black  bands.  These  beetles  are  not  very  troublesome  in  the 
apiary,  and  can  be  readily  destroyed  by  use  of  bisulphide  of 
carbon.  Care  is  necessary,  however,  in  the  use  of  this  very 
inflammable  and  explosive  liquid.  It  is  no  more  to  be  feared 
than  would  be  gasoline.  We  have  only  to  keep  the  match  or 
lighted  cigar  away.  There  are  other  beetles  and  moths  of 
similar  habits,  which  are  likely  at  any  time  to  invade  the 
apiary. 

KOBBER-FI.IES. 

There  are  several  of  these  flies  that  prey  upon  bees.  The 
most  common  is  Asilus  missouriensis,  Riley.  This  is  a  two- 
winged  fly,  of  the  predacious  family  Asilidae,  which  attacks 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THE   APIARY.  489 

and  takes  captive  the  bee  and  then  feeds  upon  its  fluids.  It  is 
more  common  in  the  southern  part  of  our  country.  The  fly 
(Fig.  269)  has  a  long,  pointed  abdomen,  strong  wings,  and  is 
very  powerful.  I  have  seen  an  allied  species  attack  and  over- 
come the  powerful  tiger-beetle,  whereupon  I  took  them  both 
with  my  net,  and  now  they  are  pinned,  as  they  were  captured, 
in  the  college  cabinet.  These  flies  delight  in  the  warm  sun- 
shine, are  very  quick  on  the  wing,  and  so  are  not  easily  cap- 
tured.   It  is  to  be  hoped  that  they  will  not  become  very  numer- 

FiG.  269. 


Roiher-Fly.— Original. 

ous.  If  they  should,  I  hardly  know  how  they  could  be  kept 
from  their  evil  work.  Frightening  them  or  catching  with  a 
net  might  be  tried,  yet  these  methods  would  irritate  the  bees, 
and  need  to  be  tried  before  they  are  recommended.  I  have 
received  specimens  of  this  fly  from  nearly  every  Southern 
State.  During  the  summer-time  these  flies  are  usually  well 
employed  in  Michigan.  They  have  been  observed  to  kill  the 
cabbage  butterfly  by  scores.  The  Asilids  are  very  common  in 
California,  yet  I  am  persuaded  that  they  do  far  more  good  than 
harm. 

I  have  also  a  fly  of  the  same  family,  with  the  same  bee- 


490 


THE  bek-keepbr's  guide; 


destroying'  habits,  a  species  of  Erax  (Fig-.  270).  In  form  it 
resembles  the  one  referred  to  above.  The  wing  (Fig-.  269),  as 
will  be  seen,  is  quite  different  in  its  venation.     I  received  this 


Fig.  270. 


Fig.  271. 


Eobber-Fly  and  Wing. — Original. 

species  from  Louisiana.     Fig-.  272  shows  the  antennae  magni- 
fied.     The  Nebraska  bee-killer,  Promachus  bastardi,   is  the 


Fig.  272. 


Fig.  273. 


Read  and  Tarsus  of  Robber-Fly. — Original. 

same  in  general  appearance  as  the  above.  The  second  vein  of 
the  primary  wing,  not  the  third,  as  in  the  case  of  Asilus,  forks. 
In  Erax,  as  seen  in  Fig.  271,  this  branch  is  disconnected. 


OR,  MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY.  491 

There  are  two  other  insects  of  this  family,  Mallophora 
orcina  and  Mallophora  bomboides,  which  dififer  greatly  in 
form  from  those  mentioned  above  ;  they  look  more  like  bum- 
ble-bees, for  which  they  have  been  mistaken. 

I  have  received  these  insects  from  several  of  our  enterpris- 
ing bee-keepers  of  the  South— Tennessee,  Georgia,  and  Florida 
—with  the  information  that  they  dart  forth  from  some  conven- 
ient perch,  and  with  swift  and  sure  aim  grasp  a  bee,  and  bear 
it  to  some  bush,  when  they  leisurely  suck  out  all  but  the  mere 
crust,  and  cast  away  the  remains. 

The  insects  in  question,  which  in  form,  size,  and  color 
much  resemble  bumble-bees,  belong  to  Ivoew's  third  group, 

Fig.  274. 


Wi7ig  of  Mallophora.— Original. 

Asilina,  as  the  antennae  end  in  a  bristle  (Fig.  272),  while  the 
second  longitudinal  vein  of  the  wing  (Fig.  274,  b)  runs  into 
the  first  (Fig.  274,  a). 

The  genus  is  Mallophora.  The  venation  of  the  wings 
much  resembles  that  of  the  genus  Promachus,  though  the 
form  of  these  insects  is  very  different. 

In  Mallophora  and  Promachus  the  venation  is  as  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  274,  where,  as  will  be  seen,  the  second  vein  (Fig. 
274,  b)  forks,  while  in  the  genus  Asilus  (Fig.  269)  the  third 
vein  is  forked,  though  in  all  three  genera  the  third  joint  of  the 
antennaa  (Fig.  272)  ends  in  a  prolonged  bristle. 

One  of  the  most  common  of  these  pests,  which  I  am 
informed  by  Dr.  Hagen,  is  Mallaphora  orcina,  Weid.,  is  one 
inch  long,  and  expands  one  and  three-fourths  inches  (Fig.  275). 
The  head  (Fig.  272)  is  broad,  the  eyes  black  and  prominent, 
the  antennae  three-jointed,  the  last  joint  terminating  in  a 
bristle,  while  the  beak  is  very  large,  strong,  and,  like  the  eyes 


492  THE  bee-kekper's  guide; 

and  antennae,  coal-black.  This  is  mostly  concealed  by  the 
light  yellow  hairs,  which  are  crowded  thick  about  the  mouth 
and  between  the  eyes. 

The  thorax  is  prominent  and  thickly  set  with  light  yellow 
hairs.  The  abdomen  is  narrow,  tapering,  and  covered  with 
yellow  hairs,  except  the  tip,  which  is  black,  though  there  are 
scattering  hairs  of  a  grayish  yellow  color  on  the  black  legs. 
The  pulvilli,  or  feet-pads  (Fig.  273,  b),  are  two  in  number, 
bright  yellow  in  color,  surmounted  by  strong,  black  claws 
(Fig.  273,  a),  while  below  and  between  is  the  sharp  spine  (Fig. 
273,  c),  technically  known  as  the  empodium. 

The  habits  of  the  flies  are  interesting,  if  not  to  our  liking. 
Their  flight  is  like  the  wind,  and,  perched  near  the  hive,  they 

Fig.  275. 


M.  oricina. — Original. 

rush  upon  the  unwary  bee  returning  to  the  hive  with  its  full 
load  of  nectar,  and  grasping  it  with  their  hard,  strong  legs, 
they  bear  it  to  some  perch  near  by,  when  they  pierce  the  crust, 
suck  out  the  blood,  and  drop  the  carcass,  and  are  then  ready 
to  repeat  the  operation.  A  hole  in  the  bee  shows  the  cause  of 
its  sudden  taking  off.  The  eviscerated  bee  is  not  always  killed 
at  once  by  this  rude  onslaught,  but  often  can  crawl  some  dis- 
tance away  from  where  it  falls,  before  it  expires. 

Another  insect  nearly  as  common  is  Mallophora  bomboides, 
Weid.  This  fly  might  be  called  a  larger  edition  of  the  one 
just  described,  as  in  form,  habits,  and  appearance  it  closely 
resembles  the  other.  It  belongs  to  the  same  genus,  possessing 
all  the  generic  characters  already  pointed  out.  It  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  capture  this  one,  as  it  is  so  quick  and  active. 


OR,  MANUAlv  OF  THE   APIARY.  493 

This  fly  is  one  and  five-sixteenths  inches  long,  and 
expands  two  and  a  half  inches.  The  head  and  thorax  are  much 
as  in  the  other  species.  The  wings  are  very  long  and  strong, 
and,  as  in  other  species,  are  of  a  smoky  brown  color.  The 
abdomen  is  short,  pointed,  concave  from  side  to  side  on  the 
under  surface,  while  the  grayish  yellow  hairs  are  abundant  on 
the  legs  and  whole  under  portion  of  the  body.  The  color  is  a 
lighter  yellow  than  in  the  other  species.  These  insects  are 
powerfully  built,  and  if  they  become  numerous  must  prove  a 
formidable  enemy  to  the  bees.  I  believe  all  of  the  robber-flies 
are  our  friends.  They  destroy  few  bees,  comparatively,  and 
hosts  of  our  insect  enemies. 

Another  insect  very  common  and  destructive  in  Georgia, 
though  it  closely  resembles  the  two  just  described,  is  of  a 
different  genus.  It  is  the  Laphria  thoracica,  of  Fabricius.  In 
this  genus  the  third  vein  is  forked,  and  the  third  joint  of  the 
antenna  is  without  the  bristle,  though  it  is  elongated  and 
tapering.  The  insect  is  black,  with  yellow  hair  covering  the 
upper  surface  of  the  thorax.  The  abdomen  is  wholly  black, 
both  above  and  below,  though  the  legs  have  yellow  hairs  on 
the  femurs  and  tibiae.  This  insect  belongs  to  the  same  family 
as  the  others,  and  has  the  same  habits.  It  is  found  North  as 
well  as  South. 

THE   STINGING   BUG— PHYMATA   KROSA,  FABR. 

This  insect  is  very  widely  distributed  throughout  the 
United  States.  I  have  received  it  from  Maryland  to  Missouri 
on  the  South,  and  from  Michigan  to  Minnesota  on  the  North. 
The  insect  will  lie  concealed  among  the  flow:ers,  and  upon 
occasion  will  grasp  a  bee,  hold  it  off  at  arm's  length,  and  suck 
out  its  blood  and  life. 

This  is  a  Hemipteron,  or  true  bug,  and  belongs  to  the 
family  Phymatidae,  Uhler.  It  is  the  Phymata  erosa,  Fabr., 
the  specific  name  erosa  referring  to  its  jagged  appearance.  It 
is  also  called  the  "  stinging  bug,"  in  reference  to  its  habit  of 
repelling  intrusion  by  a  painful  thrust  with  its  sharp,  strong 
beak. 

The  "  stinging  bug  "  is  somewhat  jagged  in  appearance, 
about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  long,  and  generally  of  a  yellow 


494 


THB  BKE-KKEPKR  S  GUIDE: 


color,  though  this  latter  seems  quite  variable.  Frequently 
there  is  a  distinct  greenish  hue.  Beneath  the  abdomen,  and 
on  the  back  of  the  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen,  it  is  more  or 
less  specked  with  brown  ;  while  across  the  dorsal  aspect  of  the 
broadened  abdomen  is  a  marked  stripe  of  brown  (Fig.  277,  d,  d). 
Sometimes  this  stripe  is  almost  wanting,  sometimes  a  mere 
patch,  while  rarely  the  whole  abdomen  is  very  slightly  marked, 
and  as  often  we  find  it  almost  wholly  brown  above  and  below. 
The  legs  (Fig.  277,  b),  beak  and  antennae  (Fig.  278,  a)  are 
greenish  yellow.  The  beak  has  three  joints  (Fig.  278,  a,  b^  c), 
and  a  sharp  point  (Fig.  278,  d).  This  beak  is  not  only  the 
great  weapon  of  offense,  but  also  the  organ  through  which  the 


Fig.  276. 


Fig.  277. 


Fig.  278. 


Side  view,  natural  size. 
— Original. 


Magnified  twice. 
— Original. 


Beak  much  magnified. 
— Original. 


food  is  sucked.  By  the  use  of  this,  the  insect  has  gained  the 
sobriquet  of  "  stinging  bug."  This  compact,  jointed  beak  is 
peculiar  to  all  true  bugs,  and  by  observing  it  alone  we  are  able 
to  distinguish  all  the  very  varied  forms  of  this  group.  The 
antenna  is  four-jointed.  The  first  joint  (Fig.  279,  a)  is  short, 
the  second  and  third  (Fig,  279,  b  and  c)  are  long  and  slim,  while 
the  terminal  one  (Fig.  279,  d)  is  much  enlarged.  This  enlarged 
joint  is  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the  genus  Phymata,  as 
described  by  Latreille.  But  the  most  curious  structural  pecu- 
liarity of  this  insect,  and  the  chief  character  of  the  genus 
Phymata,  are  the  enlarged  anterior  legs  (Figs.  280  and  281). 
These,  were  they  only  to  aid  in  locomotion,  would  seem  like 
awkward,  clumsy  organs,  but  when  we  learn  that  they  are 


OR,  MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY. 


495 


-used  to  grasp  and  hold  their  prey,  then  we  can  but  appreciate 
and  admire  their  modified  form.  The  femur  (Fig.  281,  b)  and 
the  tarsus  (Fig.  281,  a)  are  toothed,  while  the  latter  is  greatly 

Fig.  279. 


Fig.  280. 


Fig.  281. 


Interior  view.  Exterior  view. 

Antenna,  much  magnifled.  Anterior  Leg,  magnified.— Original. 

enlarged.  From  the  interior  lower  aspect  of  the  femur  (Fig. 
282)  is  the  small  tibia,  while  on  the  lower  end  of  the  tarsus 
(Fig.  281,  d)  is  a  cavity  in  which  rests  the  single  claw.  The 
other  four  legs  (Fig.  283)  are  much  as  usual. 


Fig.  282. 


Fig.  283. 


Claw,  enlarged. — Original. 


Middle  Leg,  m%cch  magnified. — Original. 


This  insect,  as  already  intimated,  is  very  predaceous, 
lying  in  wait,  often  almost  concealed,  among  flowers,  ready  to 
capture  and  destroy  unwary  plant-lice,  caterpillars,  beetles, 
butterflies,  moths,  and  even  bees  and  wasps.     We  have  already 


496 


THB    BEB-KBKPKR  S  GUIDB  ; 


noticed  how  well  prepared  it  is  for  this  work  by  its  jaw-like 
anterior  legs,  and  its  sharp,  strong,  sword-like  beak. 

It  is  often  caught  on  the  golden-rod.  This  plant,  from  its 
color,  tends  to  conceal  the  bug,  and  from  the  character  of  the 
plant — being  attractive  as  a  honey-plant  to  bees — the  slow  bug 
is  enabled  to  catch  the  spry  and  active  honey-bee. 

As  Prof .  Uhler  well  says  of  the  "stinging  bug":  "It  is 
very  useful  in  destroying  caterpillars  and  other  vegetable- 
feeding  insects,  but  is  not  very  discriminating  in  its  tastes,  and 
would  as  soon  seize  the  useful  honey-bee  as  the  pernicious  saw- 
fly."    And  he  might  have  added  that  it  is  equally  indifferent 

Fig.  284. 


Bee-Stabber,  and  Beak. — Original. 


to  the  virtues  of  our  friendly  insects,  like  the  parasitic  and 
predaceous  species. 

We  note,  then,  that  this  bug  is  not  wholly  evil,  and  as  its 
destruction  would  be  well-nigh  impossible,  for  it  is  as  widely 
scattered  as  are  the  flowers  in  which  it  lurks,  we  may  well  rest 
its  case,  at  least  until  its  destructiveness  becomes  more  serious 
than  at  present. 

THE  BEE-STABBER. 

lu  the  Southern  States  there  is  another  bug,  Euthyrhyn- 
chus  floridanus,  Linn.  (Fig.  284),  which  I  have  named  the 
bee*6tabber.  This  bug  places  itself  at  the  entrance  of  the 
hive  and  stabs  and  sucks  the  bees  till  they  are  bloodless.  As 
will  be  seen,  its  powerful  four-jointed  beak  fits  it  well  for  this 
purpose.    This  bug  is  purplish  or  greenish  blue,  with  dull, 


OR,  MANUAL  OF  THB   APIARY.  497 

yellowish  markings,  as  seen  in  the  figure.  It  is  also  yellowish 
beneath.  It  is  one-half  of  an  inch  long.  Other  similar  bugs 
may  also  learn  that  bees  with  their  ample  honey-sac  full  of 
nectar  are  most  toothsome. 

BKB-HAWK — LIBKLLULA. 

These  large,  fine,  lace-wings  (Fig.  285)  are  Neuropterous 
insects.  They  work  harm  to  the  bees  mostly  in  the  Southern 
States,  and  are  called  mosquito-hawks.  Insects  of  this  genus 
are  called  dragon-flies,  devil's  darning-needles,  etc.    They  are 

Fig.  285. 


Bee-Hawk. — Origiiuil. 

exceedingly  predaceous.  In  fact,  the  whole  order  is  insectivo- 
rous. From  its  four  netted  veined  wings,  we  can  tell  it  at  once 
from  the  Asilids,  before  mentioned,  which  have  but  two  wings. 
The  bee  or  mosquito  hawks  are  resplendent  with  metallic  hues, 
while  the  bee-killers  are  of  sober  gray.  The  mosquito-hawks 
are  not  inaptly  named,  as  they  not  only  prey  upon  other 
insects,  swooping  down  upon  them  with  the  dexterity  of  a 
hawk,  but  their  graceful  gyrations,  as  they  sport  in  the  warm 
sunshine  at  noonday,  are  not  unlike  those  of  our  graceful 
hawks  and  falcons.  These  insects  are  found  most  abundant 
near  water,  as  they  lay  their  eggs  in  water,  where  the  larvae 


498  THB  BEE-KEEPKR'S  GUIDE; 

live  and  feed  Upon  other  animals.  The  larvae  are  peculiar  in 
breathing  by  gills  in  the  rectum.  The  same  water  that  bathes 
these  organs  and  furnishes  oxygen,  is  sent  out  in  a  jet,  and 
thus  sends  the  insect  darting  along.  The  larvae  also  possess 
enormous  jaws,  which  formidable  weapons  are  masked  till  it 
is  desired  to  use  them,  when  the  dipper-shaped  mask  is  dropped 
or  unhinged,  and  the  terrible  jaws  open  and  close  upon  the 
unsuspecting  victim,  which  has  but  a  brief  time  to  bewail  its 
temerity. 

A  writer  from  Georgia,  in  Gleanings  in  Bee-Culture,  Vol. 
IV,  page  35,  states  that  these  destroyers  are  easily  scared 
away,  or  brought  down  by  boys  with  whips,  who  soon  become 
as  expert  in  capturing  the  insects  as  are  the  latter  in  seizing 

Fig.  286. 


Tachina-Fly . — Original. 

the  bees.  One  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  of  these  (Fig. 
285)  is  Anax  Junius.  It  has  a  wide  range  in  the  United  States 
(North  and  South),  and  everywhere  preys  upon  the  honey-bee. 

TACHINA-FLY. 

From  descriptions  which  I  have  received,  I  feel  certain 
that  there  is  a  two-winged  fly,  probably  of  the  genus  Tachina 
(Fig.  286),  that  works  on  bees.  I  have  never  seen  these, 
though  I  have  repeatedly  requested  those  who  have  to  send 
them  to  me.  My  friend,  J.  L.  Davis,  put  some  sick-looking 
bees  into  a  cage  and  hatched  the  flies,  which,  he  told  me, 
looked  not  unlike  a  small  house-fly.  It  is  the  habit  of  these 
flies,  which  are  closely  related  to  our  house-flies,  which  they 
much  resemble,  to  lay  their  eggs  on  other  insects.  Their 
young,  upon  hatching,  burrow  into  the  insect  that  is  being 
victimized,  and  grow  by  eating  it.     It  would  be  difl&cult  to  cope 


OR,   MANUAI,  OF  THE   APIARY. 


499 


yfith  this  evil,  should  it  become  of  great  magnitude.  We  may 
well  hope  that  this  habit  of  eating  bees  is  an  exceptional  one 
with  it.  The  affected  bees  will  be  found  dead  at  early  dawn  in 
front  of  the  hives. 

BEE-I,OUSE — BRAULA   CCECA,  KITSCH. 

This  louse  (Fig.  287)  is  a  wingless  Dipteron,  and  one  of 
the  uniques  among  insects.  It  is  a  blind,  spider-like  parasite, 
and  serves  as  a  very  good  connecting  link  between  insects  and 
spiders,  or,  still  better,  between  the  Diptera,  where  it  belongs, 
and  the  Hemiptera,  which  contains  the  bugs  and  most  of  the 
lice.    It    assumes    the    semi-pupa    state  almost    as    soon  as 

Fig.  287. 


Imago. 


Larva. 


B.  caeca. — Original. 


hatched,  and,  strangest  of  all,  is,  considering  the  size  of  the 
bee  on  which  it  lives,  and  from  which  it  sucks  its  nourishment, 
enormously  large.  Two  or  three,  and  sometimes  as  many  as 
ten,  are  found  on  a  single  bee.  When  we  consider  their  great 
size,  we  cannot  wonder  that  they  soon  devitalize  the  bees. 

These  have  done  little  damage,  except  in  the  south  of  Con- 
tinental Europe,  Cyprus,  and  other  parts  of  the  Orient.  The 
reason  that  they  have  not  been  naturalized  in  other  parts  of 
Europe  and  America  may  be  owing  to  climate,  though  I  think 
more  likely  it  is  due  to  improved  apiculture.  Mr.  Frank  Ben- 
ton, who  has  had  much  experience  with  these  bee-lice  in 
Cyprus,  writes  me  that  the  Braula  is  no  serious  pest  if  the  bees 


SOO  THB  bee-kbeper's  guide; 

are  properly  cared  for.  "  In  fact,  if  hives  are  kept  clean  inside, 
and  colonies  supplied  with  young  queens  and  kept  strong,  the 
damage  done  by  the  Braula  is  very  slight,  if  anything.  In 
old,  immovable-comb  hives,  where  the  combs  are  black  and 
thickened,  and  in  case  the  queens  are  old  ;  or  where  through 
some  extraneous  cause  the  colonies  have  become  weak,  these 
lice  are  numerous  on  queens  and  workers.  I  have  not  noticed 
them  on  the  drones.  Since  they  are  found  on  workers  as  well 
as  the  queen,  their  removal  from  the  latter  will  bring  tem- 
porary relief.  About  ten  is  the  greatest  number  that  I  have 
seen  on  one  queen.  I  have  only  thought  it  necessary  to 
remove  them  in  case  there  were  three  or  more  on  a  queen.  The 
only  way  to  remove  them  is  to  pick  them  oflf  with  a  knife, 
scissors,  forceps  or  similar  instrument.  They  are  quick-footed, 
and  glide  from  one  place  to  another  like  the  wax-moth.  I  hold 
the  queen  between  the  thumb  and  first  finger  of  the  left  hand, 
and  with  pocket-knife  or  clipping  scissors  shave  off  the  para- 
site. It  is  no  easy  matter  to  get  them  the  first  time,  as  when 
you  attempt  their  removal  they  glide  around  to  the  other  side 
of  the  queen  so  adroitly  that  you  have  to  turn  the  queen  over 
to  try  again."  Mr.  Benton  says  that  it  is  not  practicable  to 
remove  these  lice  by  lessening  the  size  of  the  entrance  to  the 
hive.  He  thinks  that,  with  the  attention  given  to  bees  in 
America,  the  Braula  will  never  become  a  serious  pest,  if  intro- 
duced here.  While  these  lice  have  been  imported  to  America 
several  times,  they  seem  to  disappear  almost  at  .once,  which 
verifies  Mr.  Benton's  prophecy. 

ANTS. 

These  cluster  about  the  hives  in  spring  for  warmth,  and 
seldom,  if  ever,  I  think,  do  any  harm  in  our  cold  climates, 
though  in  California  and  the  South  they  do  much  harm. 
Should  the  apiarist  feel  nervous,  he  can  very  readily  brush 
them  away,  or  destroy  them  by  use  of  any  of  the  fly-poisons 
which  are  kept  in  the  markets.  As  these  poisons  are  made 
attractive  by  adding  sweets,  we  must  be  careful  to  preclude 
the  "bees  from  gaining  access  to  them.  As  we  should  use  them 
in  spring,  and  as  we  then  need  to  keep  the  quilt  or  honey-board 
close  above  the  bees,  and  as  the  ants  cluster  above  the  brood- 


OR,    MANUAI,  OF  THK  APIARY. 


501 


chamber,  it  is  not  difficult  to  practice  poisoning.  One  year  I 
tried  Paris-green  with  success.  There  are  several  reports  of 
ants  entering  the  hives  and  killing  the  bees  ;  even  the  queen 
is  said  to  have  been  thus  destroyed. 

I  learn  from  Mr.  H.  E.  Hill,  of  Florida,  of  a  large,  red  ant 
peculiar  to  that  section  (Fig.  288),  which  is  a  terror  to  bees.  It 
has  destroyed  nineteen  nuclei  in  one  week,  and  hundreds  of 
dollars  worth  of  bees,  for  Mr.  Hill.  It  hides  and  burrows  in 
rotten  wood,  above  and  below  ground,  in  hive-covers,  in  parts 
of  hives  separated  by  the  division-boards— anywhere  where 

Fig.  288. 


Florida  Ant,  in  all  stages. — Original. 

concealment  is  possible.  So  numerous  are  they  that  Mr.  Hill 
thinks  there  may  be  thousands  in  a  colony,  and  he  has 
destroyed  hundreds  of  colonies  within  the  past  two  years. 
Weak  and  queenless  colonies  suffer  most,  but  none  are  exempt. 
Scouts  are  s6nt  out  to  locate  the  prey  in  the  early  twilight. 
I^ater  the  chosen  victims  are  stormed  by  the  ant  army  and 
routed,  though  many  ants  die  in  the  conflict.  This  ant  (Fig. 
288)  is  known  as  the  bull-dog  ant  in  Florida.  It  is  known  to 
science  as  Camponotus  esuriens.  (See  American  Bee  Journal, 
Vol  XL,I,  page  72.)  Mr.  Hill  finds  only  one  way— burning— to 
destroy  them,  and  only  one  to  keep  them  at  bay.  The  legs  of 
the  hive  stands  are  cut  with  a  basin  (Fig.  289),  which  is  waxed 
and  kept  filled  with  carbolic  acid.  This  is  not  satisfactory,  as 
it  evaporates  quickly.  I  would  suggest  mixing  kerosene  and 
lard,  both  of  which  are  very  obnoxious  to  insects,  and  fill  the 


502  THE  bek-keepkr's  guide; 

basins  with  this.  Ants  in  California  are  killed  by  saturating 
the  runs  with  gasoline,  and  then  burning  all.  It  is  a  quick 
remedy,  but  hard  for  the  ants. 

This  ant  is  red  except  the  eyes  and  abdomen,  which  may 
be  nearly  all  black,  large  soldiers,  or  tipped  with  black — com- 
mon workers.     There  are  many  hairs  on  the  abdomen. 

In  such  cases,  if  they  occur,  it  is  best  to  put  a  sweet  poi- 
sonous mixture  in  a  box  and  permit  the  ants  to  enter  through 

Fig.  289. 


Leg  of  Hive-Stand.— Original. 

an  opening  too  small  to  admit  bees,  and  thus  poison  the  ants. 
Or  we  may  find  the  ant's  nest,  and,  with  a  crowbar,  make  a 
hole  in  it,  turn  in  this  an  ounce  of  bisulphide  of  carbon,  and 
quickly  plug  it  up  by  packing  clay  in  the  hole  and  on  the  nest. 
The  liquid  will  kill  the  ants.  This  better  be  done  when  the 
ants  are  mostly  in  their  nest. 

THE  COW-KII,I,ER. 

This  ant-like  insect,  Mutilla  coccinea  (Fig.  290),  has  been 
sent  me  from  Illinois  and  the  South  as  far  as  Texas.  It  is  a 
formidable  enemy  of  the  bees.  The  male  has  wings  and  no 
sting.  The  female  has  no  wings,  but  is  possessed  of  a  power- 
ful sting.  She  is  an  inch  (25  mm.)  long,  very  hairy,  and  black, 
except  the  top  of  her  head  and  thorax,  and  a  broad  basal  band 
and  the  tip  of  the  upper  part  of  her  abdomen,  which  are  bright 


6r,  manuai,  of  the  apiary.  S05 

red.  A  central  band  of  black  divides  the  red  spaces  of  the 
abdomen.  The  entire  under  part  of  the  body  and  all  the  mem- 
bers are  black.  There  are  several  species  of  varying  size  and 
color  in  California.  Grayish  white  species  are  nearly  as  com- 
mon as  the  red  and  black  ones.  Some  are  as  large  as  a 
worker-bee. 

So  hard  and  dense  is   the  chitinous  crust  of  these  insects 
that  they  enter  the  hives  fearlessly,  and,  unmindful  of  stings, 

Fig,  290. 


CovB-Eiller. — Origitial. 

deliberately  kill  the  bees  and  feed  on  the  young.  The  males 
are  said  to  sting.  This  is  certainly  a  mistake.  The  sting  is  a 
modified  ovipositor— an  organ  not  possessed  by  males.  These 
insects  belong  to  the  family  Mutillidas,  so  called  because  the 
females  are  wingless.  They  are  closely  allied  in  structure  to 
the  ants,  which  they  much  resemble. 

THE  PRAYING  MANTIS. 

This  strange  insect  I  have  received  from  Indiana  and  other 
Southern  and  Western  States.  Its  scientific  name  is  Mantis 
Carolina,  Linn.  A  similar  species  I  often  take  in  Los  Angeles 
County,  Calif.  It  is  very  predaceous,  and  the  female  has  been 
known  to  eat  up  her  mate  immediately  after  the  sexual  act. 
No  wonder  that  they  make  our  friends  of  the  hive  contribute 
to  their  support.  This  insect  (Fig.  291)  is  a  sort  of  nonde- 
script. In  the  South  it  is  known  as  devil's  race-horse.  It  is  a 
corpulent  "walking-stick"  with  wings.  In  fact,  is  closely 
related  to  the  "  walking-sticks  "  of  the  North.  Its  anterior 
legs  are  very  curious.  As  it  rests  upon  them,  it  appears  as  if 
in  the  attitude  of  devotion,  hence  the  name,  praying  mantis. 
It  also  raises  these  anterior  legs  in   a  supplicating  attitude, 


£04  THE  BEE-KBEPER'S  GUIDE  ; 

which  would  also  suggest  the  name.  It  might  well  be  preymg 
mantis.  These  peculiar  anterior  legs,  like  the  same  in  Phy- 
mata  erosa,  are  used  to  grasp  its  victims.  It  is  reported  to 
move  with  surprising  rapidity,  as  it  grasps  its  prey. 

Fig.  291. 


Mantis. — Original, 

Its  eggs  (Fig.  292)  are  glued  to  some  twig,  in  a  scale-like 
mass,  and  covered  with  a  sort  of  varnish.  Some  of  these 
hatched  out  in  one  of  my  boxes,  and  the  depravity  of  these 
insects  was  manifest  in  the  fact  that  those  first  hatched  fell  to 

Fig.  292. 


's  of  Mantis.— Original. 


and  ate  the  others.     They  do  much  good   in   destroying  our 
insect  enemies. 

BLISTER-BEETLES. 

I  have  received  from  Mr.  Rainbow,  of  San  Diego  Co., 
Calif.,  the  larvae  (Fig.  293,  a)  of  some  blister-beetles,  probably 
Meloe  barbarus,  Lee,  as  that  is  a  common  species  in  Califor- 
nia. Mr.  Rainbow  took  as  many  as  seven  from  one  worker- 
bee.  Fig.  293,  B,  represents  the  female  of  Meloe  angusticollis, 
a  common  species  in  Michigan  and  the  East.    I  have  also 


OR,  MANUAI.  OF  THE  APIARY.  SOS 

received  larvae  from  Mr.  Hammond,  of  New  York,  who  took 
them  from  his  bees.  He  says  they  make  the  bees  uncomfort- 
able. These  are  likely  M.  angusticoUis.  As  will  be  seen,  the 
wing-covers  are  short,  and  the  beetle's  abdomen  fairly  drags 
with  its  weight  of  eggs.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  earth.  The 
larvae,  when  first  hatched,  crawl  upon  some  flower,  and,  as 
occasion  permits,  crawl  upon  a  bee  and  thus  are  borne  to  the 
hive,  where  they  feast  on  eggs,  honey  and  pollen.  These 
Fig.  293. 


Blister- Beetle  and  Larva.— Original. 

insects  undergo  what  M.  Faher  styles  hyper-metamorphosis, 
as  the  larva  appears  in  four  different  forms  instead  of  one. 
Two  of  these  forms  show  in  the  figure.  The  Spanish-fly— 
Cantharides  of  the  shops — is  an  allied  insect.  Some  of  our 
common  blister-beetles  are  very  destructive  to  plants.  Girard, 
in  his  excellent  work  on  bees,  gives  illustrations  of  all  the 
forms  of  this  insect. 

WASPS. 

I  have  never  seen  bees  injured  by  wasps.  In  the  South,  as 
in  Europe,  we  hear  of  such  depredations.  I  have  received 
wasps,  sent  by  our  Southern  brothers,  which  were  caught 
destroying  bees.  The  wasp  sent  me  is  the  large,  handsome 
Stizus  speciosus,  Drury.  It  is  black,  with  its  abdomen  imper- 
fectly ringed  with  yellow.  The  wasps  are  very  predaceous, 
and  do  immense  benefit  by  capturing  and  eating  our  insect 
pests.  I  have  seen  wasps  carry  off  "  currant  worms  "  with  a 
celerity  that  was  most  refreshing. 


506  tHn  BEa-KaEPKR*S  (lUIt>B  { 

As  the  solitary  wasps  are  too  few  in  numbers  to  do  much 
damag-e — even  if  they  ever  do  any — any  great  damage  which 
may  occur  would  doubtless  come  from  the  social  paper-makers. 
In  this  case,  we  have  only  to  find  the  nests  and  apply  the  torch, 
or  hold  the  muzzle  of  a  shot-gun  to  the  nest  and  shoot.  This 
should  be  done  at  nightfall,  when  the  wasps  have  all  gathered 
home.  Let  us  not  forget  that  the  wasps  do  much  good,  and  so 
not  practice  wholesale  slaughter  unless  we  have  strong  evi- 
dence against  them. 

A  BEE-MITK. 

It  has  long  been  known  to  chicken  fanciers  that  our  poul- 
try often  suffer  serious  injury  from  a  small  mite.  These  little 
arachnids  often  enter  houses  in  countless  thousands,  much  to 
the  annoyance  of  the  owners.  Kerosene  may  be  used  to  repel 
them.    Other  mites  attack  the  cow,  the  horse,  the  sheep,  etc. 

Fig.  294. 


Mite. — Original. 

The  Texas  cattle-tick— Boophalus  bovis— which  so  often  wor- 
ries horses  and  cattle,  and  which  carries  the  minute  protozoan 
(Pyrosoma  bigeminum)  that  causes  the  terrible  Texas  fever,  is 
a  colossal  mite. 

One  spring  a  lady  bee-keeper  of  Connecticut  discovered 
these  mites  in  her  hives  while  investigating  to  learn  the  cause 
of  their  rapid  depletion.  She  had  noticed  that  the  colonies 
were  greatly  reduced  in  number  of  bees,  and  upon  close  obser- 
vation she  found  that  the  diseased  or  failing  colonies  were 


OR,   MANUAI.  Olf  run  APIARY.  SQ? 

covered  with  these  mites.  A  celebrated  queen-breeder  of  New 
York  State  sent  me  these  same  mites  in  1887,  with  the  report 
that  they  killed  his  queens  while  yet  in  the  cell.  I  found  great 
numbers  in  a  cell  sent  by  this  gentleman.  The  strong  and 
prosperous  colonies  were  exempt  from  the  annoyance.  So 
small  are  these  little  pests  that  a  score  could  take  possession  of 
a  single  bee,  and  not  be  near  neighbors,  either.  The  lady 
states  that  the  bees  roll  and  scratch  in  their  vain  attempts  to 
rid  themselves  of  these  annoying  stick-tights,  and,  finally, 
worried  out,  either  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  hive  or  go  forth 
to  die  outside. 

The  bee-mite  (Fig.  294)  is  very  small,  hardly  more  than 
five  mm.  (1-50  of  an  inch)  long.  The  female  is  slightly  larger 
than  the  male,  and  somewhat  transparent.  The  color  is  black, 
though  the  legs  and  more  transparent  areas  of  the  females 
appear  yellowish. 

RBMEDLES. 

The  fact  that  what  would  be  poison  to  the  mite  would 
probably  be  death  to  the  bees,  makes  this  question  of  remedy 
quite  a  difficult  one.  I  can  only  suggest  what  Mrs.  Squire  has 
tried— frequent  changing  of  the  bees  from  one  hive  to  another, 
after  which  the  hive  can  be  freed  from  the  mites  by  scalding. 
Of  course,  the  more  frequent  the  transfer  the  more  thorough 
the  remedy. 

I  would  suggest  placing  pieces  of  fresh  meat,  greased  or 
sugared  paper,  etc.,  in  the  hives,  in  hopes  to  attract  the  pests, 
which,  when  massed  on  these  decoys,  could  easily  be  killed. 

CAI,IFORNIA   BEK-KII,I.BR. 

Mr.  J.  D.  Enas,  of  Napa  Co.,  Calif.,  sent  me  specimens  of 
a  curious  bee-enemy  (Fig.  295),  which  he  finds  quite  a  serious 
enemy  of  bees.  I  have  taken  many  of  these  here  at  Claremont, 
but  have  not  known  of  their  disturbing  bees. 

This  is  a  Datames,  possibly  D.  Californicus,  Simon,  though 
it  does  not  quite  agree  with  the  description  of  that  species.  It, 
like  the  mites  just  described,  belongs  to  the  sub-class  Arachnida 
or  spiders,  and  is  related  to  the  scorpions.  The  group  of  ani- 
mals is  known  as  the  family  Solpulgidae.  As  will  be  seen,  the 
head  and  thorax  are  not  separate,  as  they  are  in  true  insects. 


508  THE  bek-kbbpkr'S  guide; 

The  abdomen  is  long  and  segmented,  a  shield-like  plate  covers 
the  head,  and  the  eyes  are  far  forward,  small  and  globular. 
The  most  peculiar  organs  are  the  jaws  or  falces,  which  are 
immense,  and  armed  with  formidable  teeth,  spines,  hairs,  etc. 
The  family  is  small,  little  known,  and,  except  in  one  case, 

Fig.  295. 


California  Bee-Killer. — Original. 
(Jaws  and  falces,  and  posterior  leg.) 

Datames  pallipes.  Say.,  which  is  said  to  live  in  houses  in  Colo- 
rado, and  to  feed  on  bed-bugs ;  the  habits  have  not  been 
described. 

Mr.  Enas  finds  this  species  in  his  hives,  killing  and  eating 
the  bees.  The  remedy  must  be  hand-picking,  which  will  not 
be  very  difficult. 

SPIDERS. 

These  sometimes  spread  their  nets  so  as  to  capture  bees. 
If  porticos — which  are,  I  think,  worse  than  a  useless  expense — 
are  omitted,  there  will  very  seldom  be  any  cause  for  complaint 
against  the  spiders,  which,  on  the  whole,  are  friends.  As  the 
bee-keeper  who  would  permit  spiders  to  worry  his  bees  would 
not  read  books,  I  will  discuss  this  subject  no  further. 

THE   KING-BIRD— TYRANNUS  CAROI,INENSIS. 

This  bird,  often  called  the  bee-martin,  is  one  of  the  fly- 
catchers, a  very  valuable  family  of  birds,  as  they  are  wholly 


OR,  MANUAIv  OF  THE  APIARY.  S09 

insectivorous,  and  do  immense  good  by  destroying-  our  insect 
pests.  The  king-birds  are  the  only  ones  in  the  United  States 
that  deserve  censure.  The  species  in  California  is  Tyrannus 
verticalis,  or  Western  king-bird  ;  that  of  the  East,  Tyrannus 
tyrannus.  Another,  the  chimney  swallow  of  Europe,  has  the 
same  evil  habit.  Our  chimney  swallow  has  no  evil  ways.  I 
am  sure,  from  personal  observation,  that  these  birds  capture 
and  eat  the  workers,  as  well  as  drones,  as  I  have  taken  worker- 
bees  from  their  stomachs  ;  and,  I  dare  say,  they  would  pay  no 
more  respect  to  the  finest  Italian  queen.  They  perch  on  a  tree 
or  post  and  dart  with  the  speed  of  an  arrow  as  their  poor  victim 
comes  heavily  laden  towards  the  hives.  How  is  it  that  the 
bird  is  not  stung  ?  Some  say  that  they  pull  the  bees  apart  and 
simply  eat  the  honey- stomach.  Do  they  handle  the  bee  so  as 
to  avoid  the  stings ?  Who  will  determine  this  point?  King- 
birds killed  close  by  an  apiary  here  at  Claremont  had  only  rob- 
ber-flies in  their  stomachs  ;  thus  it  was  befriending  the  bees. 
Yet,  in  view  of  the  good  that  these  birds  do,  unless  they  are 
far  more  numerous  and  troublesome  than  I  have  ever  observed 
them  to  be,  I  should  certainly  be  slow  to  recommend  the  death 
warrant. 

TOADS. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  toads,  which  may  often  be  seen 
sitting  demurely  at  the  entrance  of  the  hives,  and  lapping  up 
the  full-laden  bees  with  the  lightning-like  movement  of  their 
tongues,  in  a  manner  which  can  but  be  regarded  with  interest, 
even  by  him  who  suffers  loss.  Mr.  Moon,  the  well-known  api- 
arist, made  this  an  objection  to  low  hives  ;  yet,  the  advantage 
of  such  hives  far  more  than  compensates,  and  with  a  bottom- 
board,  such  as  described  in  the  chapter  on  hives,  we  shall  find 
that  the  toads  do  very  little  damage.  In  case  of  toads,  the  bees 
sting  their  throats,  as  I  have  taken,  on  several  occasions,  the 
stings  from  the  throats  of  the  toads,  after  seeing  the  latter 
capture  the  bees.  As  the  toads  make  no  fuss,  it  seems  prob- 
able that  their  throats  are  callous  against  the  stings. 


These  little  pests  are  a  consummate  nuisance  about  the 
apiary.    They  enter  the  hives  in  winter,  mutilate  the  combs. 


510  THE  BEE-KEEPER'S  GUIDE; 

especially  those  with  pollen  or  old  combs  that  have  been  long 
used  for  breeding-,  irritate,  perhaps  destroy,  the  bees,  and 
create  a  very  offensive  stench.  They  often  greatly  injure 
comb  which  is  outside  the  hive,  destroy  smokers,  by  eating  the 
leather  off  the  bellows,  and,  if  they  get  at  the  seeds  of  honey- 
plants,  they  never  retreat  till  they  make  complete  the  work  of 
destruction. 

In  the  house  and  cellar,  unless  they  are  made  as  they 
should  always  be— mouse-proof— these  plagues  should  be,  by 
use  of  cat  or  trap,  completely  exterminated.  If  we  winter  bees 
on  the  summer  stands,  the  hive-entrance  should  be  so  con- 
tracted that  mice  can  not  enter  the  hive.  In  case  of  packing, 
as  I  have  recommended,  I  should  prefer  a  more  ample  opening, 
which  may  be  safely  secured  by  taking  a  piece  of  wire-cloth  or 
perforated  tin  or  zinc,  and,  tacking  it  over  the  entrance,  letting 
it  come  within  one-fourth  of  an  inch  of  the  bottom-board.  This 
will  give  more  air,  and  still  preclude  the  entrance  of  these 
miserable  vermin. 

SHREWS. 

These  are  mole-like  animals  (Fig.  295),  and  look  not  unlike 
a  mouse.  They  have  a  long,  pointed  nose  like  the  moles,  to 
which  they  are  closely  related.    They  are  insectivorous,  and 

Fig.  295. 


Shrew,— Origina  I. 

have  needle-shaped  teeth,  quite  unlike  those  of  the  Rodentia, 
which  includes  the  true  mice.  I  have  received  from  Illinois 
and  Missouri  species  of  the  short-tailed  shrews — Blarina— 
which  enter  the  hives  in  winter  and  eat  the  bees,  only  refusing 
the  head  and  wings.  They  injure  the  combs  but  little.  As 
they  will  pass  through  a  space  three-eigh'ths  of  an  inch  wide, 
it  is  not  easy  to  keep  them  out  of  hives  where  the  bees  are 
wintering  on  their  summer  stands.     I  have  received  a  short- 


O^,    MANUAI,  OF  THE  APIARY.  511 

tailed  shrew— Blarina  brevicauda,  Gray— which  was  taken  in 
the  hives  by  Mr.  Little,  of  Illinois. 


Skunks  sometimes  annoy  bee-keepers.  They  disturb  the 
bees  at  nightfall,  and  as  the  bees  come  out  of  the  hive  they 
gulp  them  down.  Of  course,  they  can  be  poisoned  or  trapped. 
But  as  insect-destroyers  they  do  great  good,  and  I  doubt  if  we 
can  ever  afford  to  kill  the  skunks.  The  small,  striped  skunk 
in  Southern  California  depredates  on  our  poultry.  Yet  I  would 
use  wire-netting  and  keep  them  out  of  the  poultry-house,  and 
not  kill  them. 


512  XHK  bbe-kseper'S  guide  ; 

CHAPTER  XXL 

CALENDAR     AND    AXIOMS. 
WORK  FOR  DIFFKRKNT  MONTHS. 

Though  every  apiarist  will  take  one,  at  least,  of  the  sev- 
eral excellent  journals  relating  to  this  art,  printed  in  our  coun- 
try, in  which  the  necessary  work  of  each  month  will  be  detailed, 
yet  it  may  be  well  to  give  some  brief  hints  in  this  place. 

These  dates  are  arranged  for  the  Northern  States,  where 
the  fruit-trees  blossom  about  the  middle  of  May.  By  noting 
these  flowers,  the  dates  can  be  easily  changed  to  suit  any 
locality. 

JANUARY. 

During  this  month  the  bees  will  need  little  attention. 
Should  the  bees  in  the  cellar  or  depository  become  uneasy, 
which  will  not  happen  if  the  requisite  precautions  are  taken, 
and  there  comes  a  warm  day,  it  were  well  to  set  them  on  their 
summer  stands,  that  they  may  enjoy  a  purifying  flight.  At 
night,  when  all  are  again  quiet,  return  them  to  the  cellar. 
While  out  I  would  clean  the  bottom-boards,  especially  if  there 
are  many  dead  bees.  This  is  the  time  to  read,  visit,  study, 
and  plan  for  the  ensuing  season's  work. 

FEBRUARY. 

No  advice  is  necessary  further  than  that  given  for  Jan- 
uary, though  if  the  bees  have  a  good  flight  in  January,  they 
will  scarcely  need  attention  in  this  month.  The  presence  of 
snow  on  the  ground  need  not  deter  the  apiarist  from  giving 
his  bees  a  flight,  providing  the  day  is  warm  and  still.  It  is 
better  to  let  them  alone  if  they  are  quiet,  as  they  should  and 
will  be  if  all  is  right.  In  California  we  must  be  sure  the  stores 
are  sufficient. 

MARCH. 

Bees  should  be  kept  housed,  and  those  outside  still  retain 
about  them  the  packing  of   straw,  shavings,  etc.    Frequent 


OR,    MANtJAI,  OF  THE  APIARY.  513 

flights  do  no  good,  and  wear  out  the  bees.  Colonies  that  are 
uneasy  and  besmear  their  hives  are  not  wintering  well,  and 
may  be  set  out  and  allowed  a  good  flight  and  then  returned. 
In  California  we  do  the  April  work  of  the  East. 


Early  in  this  month  the  bees  may  all  be  put  out.  It  will 
be  best  to  feed  all,  and  give  all  access  to  flour,  when  they  will 
work  at  it,  though  usually  they  can  get  pollen  as  soon  as  they 
can  fly  out  to  advantage.  Keep  the  brood-chamber  contracted 
so  that  the  frames  will  all  be  covered,  and  cover  well  above 
the  bees  to  economize  heat. 

The  colony  or  colonies  from  which  we  desire  to  rear  queens 
and  drones  should  now  be  fed  to  stimulate  breeding.  By  care- 
ful pruning,  too,  we  may  and  should  prevent  the  rearing  of 
drones  in  any  but  the  best  colonies.  If  from  lack  of  care  the 
previous  autumn  any  of  our  colonies  are  short  of  stores,  now 
is  when  it  will  be  felt.  In  such  cases  feed  either  honey,  sugar, 
or  syrup,  or  place  candy  on  top  of  the  frames  beneath  the  oil- 
cloth cover.  Remember  that  plenty  of  stores  insures  rapid 
breeding.  In  California  we  will  do  the  May  work  of  the  East 
in  April. 

MAY. 

Prepare  nuclei  to  start  extra  queens.  Feed  sparingly  till 
bloom  appears.  Give  room  for  storing.  Extract  if  necessary, 
and  keep  close  watch  for  swarms.  Now,  too,  is  the  best  time 
to  transfer. 

JUNE. 

Keep  all  colonies  supplied  with  vigorous,  prolific  queens.' 
Divide  the  colonies  or  allow  swarming  as  may  be  desired. 
Extract  if  necessary,  or  best,  adjust  frames  or  sections,  if  comb 
honey  is  desired,  and  be  sure  to  keep  all  the  white  clover  honey, 
in  whatever  form  taken,  separate  from  all  other.  Now  is  the 
best  time  to  Italianize. 

JULY. 

The  work  this  month  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  June. 
Keep  the  basswood  honey  by  itself,  and  tier  up  sections  as 


514  THE  BEE-KEEPER'S  GUIDE; 

soon  as  the  bees  are  well  at  work  in  them.  Be  sure  that  queens 
and  workers  have  plenty  of  room  to  do  their  best,  and  do  not 
suffer  the  hot  sun  to  strike  the  hives. 


Do  not  fail  to  supersede  impotent  queens.  Between  bass- 
wood  and  fall  bloom  it  may  pay  to  feed  sparingly.  Give 
plenty  of  room  for  queen  and  workers,  as  fall  storing  com- 
mences. 

SEPTEMBER. 

Remove  all  surplus  boxes  and  frames  as  soon  as  storing 
ceases,  which  usually  occurs  about  the  middle  of  this  month. 
See  that  all  colonies  have  enough  stores  for  winter.  If  neces- 
sary to  feed  honey  or  sugar  for  winter,  it  should  be  done  at  this 
time. 

OCTOBER. 

If  not  already  done,  prepare  colonies  for  winter.  See  that 
all  have  at  least  30  pounds,  by  weight,  of  good,  capped  stores, 
and  that  all  are  strong  in  bees.  If  the  bees  are  to  be  packed, 
it  should  be  done  early  in  October. 

NOVEMBER. 

Before  the  cold  days  come,  remove  the  bees  to  the  cellar  or 
depository. 

DECEMBER. 

Now  is  the  time  to  make  hives,  honey-boxes,  etc.,  for  the 
coming  year.  Also  labels  for  hives.  These  may  contain  just 
the  name  of  the  colony,  in  which  case  the  full  record  will  be 
kept  in  a  book ;  or  the  label  may  be  made  to  contain  a  full 
register  as  to  time  of  formation,  age  of  queen,  etc.  Slates  are 
also  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

I  know  from  experience  that  any  who  heed  all  of  the  above 
may  succeed  in  bee-keeping — may  win  a  double  success — 
receive  pleasure  and  make  money.  I  feel  sure  that  many 
experienced  apiarists  will  jBnd  advice  that  it  may  pay  to  follow. 
It  is  probable  that  errors  abound,  and  certain  that  much 
remains  unsaid,  for  of  all  apiarists  it  is  true  that  what  they  do 
not  know  is  greatly  in  excess  of  what  they  do  know. 


OR,   MANUAI,  OIF  THE   APIARY.  SIS 

AXIOMS. 

The  following-  axioms,  given  by  Mr.  Lrangstroth,  are  just 
as  true  to-day  as  they  were  when  written  by  that  noted  author  : 

There  are  a  i&yj  first  principles  in  bee-keeping  which  ought 
to  be  as  familiar  to  the  apiarist  as  the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 

/'Vr^/.— Bees  gorged  with  honey  never  volunteer  an  attack. 

Second. — Bees  may  always  be  made  peaceable  by  inducing' 
them  to  accept  of  liquid  sweets. 

Third. — Bees,  when  frightened  by  smoke  or  by  drumming 
on  their  hives,  fill  themselves  with  honey  and  lose  all  disposi- 
tion to  sting,  unless  they  are  hurt. 

Fourth. — Bees  dislike  any  quick  movements  about  their 
hives,  especially  any  motion  which /arj  their  combs. 

Fifth.— In  districts  where  forage  is  abundant  only  for  a 
short  period,  the  largest  yield  of  honey  will  be  secured  by  a 
very  moderate  increase  of  colonies. 

Sixth. — A  moderate  increase  of  colonies  in  any  one  season 
will,  in  the  long  run,  prove  to  be  the  easist,  safest,  and  cheapest 
mode  of  managing  bees. 

Seventh. — A  queenless  colony,  unless  supplied  with  a  queen, 
will  inevitably  dwindle  away,  or  be  destroyed  by  the  bee-moth 
or  by  robber-bees. 

Eighth.— 1\\Q  formation  of  new  colonies  should  ordinarily 
be  confined  to  the  season  when  bees  are  accumulating  honey ; 
and  if  this  or  any  other  operation  m-.st  be  performed  when 
forage  is  scarce,  the  greatest  precaution  should  be  used  to 
prevent  robbing. 

The  essence  of  all  profitable  bee-keeping  is  contained  in 
Oettl's  Golden  Rule :  Keep  your  coi.onies  strong.  If  you 
can  not  succeed  in  doing  this,  the  more  money  you  invest  in 
bees  the  heavier  will  be  your  losses  ;  while,  if  your  colonies 
are  strong,  you  will  show  that  you  are  a  bee-master  as  well  as 
a  bee-keeper,  and  may  safely  calculate  on  generous  returns 
from  your  industrious  subjects. 

"  Keep  all  colonies  strong. ^^ 


GLOSSARY. 


Abdomen— The  third  or  last  part  of  bee's  body,  p.  54,  65. 

Absconding  Swarm— Swarm  that  has  separated  from  cluster  and  is  going 
to  its  new  home,  p.  305. 

Adulteration — Making  impure,  as  mixing  glucose  with  honey,  p.  175. 

After-Swarms— Swarms  that  issue  within  a  few  days  after  the  first  swarms, 
p.  168. 

Air-Tubes — Tracheae ;  Lungs  of  insects,  p.  86. 

Albino— Usually  applied  to  animals  with  no  pigment  in  skin,  hair,  etc.  In 
bee-culture  it  refers  to  a  variety  of  Italians  with  white  rings,  p.  55. 

Alighting-Board — Board  in  front  of  entrance,  on  which  bees  alight  as  th»y 
return  to  their  hives,  p.  214. 

American  Hive — Langstroth  hive  with  frames  one  foot  square. 

Antennae — Horn-like  organs  of  insects,  p.  70. 

Antenna  Cleaner^Organ  on  anterior  leg  of  bees,  wasps,  etc.,  to  dust  an- 
tennae, p.  148. 

Apiarian — Adjective,  as  apiarian  implements ;  incorrectly  used  as  a  noun 
for  apiarist. 

Apiarist — One  who  keeps  bees. 

Apiary— Place  where  bees  are  kept,  including  bees  and  all. 

Apiculture— Art  of  bee-keeping. 

Apidas — Family  of  bees,  p.  38. 

Aphis— Plant-lice,  p.  390. 

Apis — Genus  of  the  honey-bee,  p.  44. 

Arthropada— Branch  or  phylum  of  insects,  p.  31. 

Artlculata — Old  name  for  branch  containing  insects,  p.  31. 

Artificial  Fecundation  or  Impregnation — Fecundation  in  confinement  (?). 

Artificial  Heat,  Swarms,  Pasturage,  etc. — Furnished  by  man ;  not  natural. 

Atavism — Inheriting  from  a  remote  ancestor. 

Balling  of  Queen— Bees  gathering  snugly  about  the  queen  in  form  of  a 
sphere,  p.  312. 

Bar-Hives— Hives  with  bars  across  the  top  to  which  the  combs  are  at- 
tached, p.  210. 

Barren — Sterile:  not  able  to  produce  eggs  or  young,  p.  118. 

Bees — Insects  of  the  Family  Apidae,  p.  38. 

Bee-Bird  or  Bee-Martin — A  fly-catcher  that  captures  bees,  p.  508. 

Bee-Bread — The  albuminous  food  of  bees,  usuaUy  pollen,  p.  186. 

Bee-Culture — Keeping  bees. 

Bee-Dress — Special  suit  worn  by  apiarist  while  working  with  bees,  p.  345. 

Bee-Escape— Device  for  clearing  upper  story  of  hive  or  section-case  of 
bees,  pp.  330,  341,  469. 

Bee-Glue— Propolis,  p.  190. 


518  GI,OSSARY. 

Bee-Gum—  Section  of  hollow  tree  used  as  a  bee-hive. 

Bee-Hat — Hat  60  arranged  as  to  prevent  bees  from  stinging  the  face,  p.  344. 

Bee-Hawk — Dragon  fly,  p.  497. 

Bee-Hive — Box  for  bees.     See  bee-gum  and  skep,  p.  207. 

Bee-House — House  where  bees  are  kept,  where  bee-work  is  done,  or  bees 

wintered,  p.  468. 
Bee-Keeper — One  who  keeps  bees ;  apiarist. 

Bee-Line — Straight  line,  like  the  route  of  bee  from  field  to  hive,  p.  262. 
Bee-Louse — Braula  Coeca,  p.  499. 
Bee-Martin — King  or  bee  bird,  p.  508. 
Bee-Master — English,  bee-keeper. 
Bee-Moth — Galleria  mellonellaj  formerly  G.  cereana,  moth  that  feeds  on 

wax,  etc.,  p.  482. 
Bee-Pasturage — Honey-plants,  p.  389. 

Bee-Plants — Plants  which  secrete  nectar,  and  so  are  visited  by  bees,  p.  389. 
Bee-Space — Space  that  will  just  allow  a  bee  to  pass:  it  is  three-sixteenths 

of  an  inch.    A  double  bee-space,  three-eighths  of  an  inch  minus,  is 

the  space  that  bees  do  not  fill  with  brace-combs  or  glue. 
Beeswax — Secretion  of  the  bee  from  which  comb  is  fashioned,  p.  176. 
Bee-Tent — Tent  covering  hive  and  bee-keeper,  pp.  332,  351.    In  England, 

tent  for  lectures  on  bees. 
Bee-tree— A  hollow  tree  in  which  bees  breed  and  store,  p.  262. 
Bee-Veil — Veil  for  protecting  face  while  working  with  bees,  p.  344. 
Bell-Glass — Glass  vessel  used  for  surplus  comb-honey  storing. 
Bingham-Knife— Uncapping  knife  with  beveled  edge,  p.  325. 
Bingham-Smoker — Bee-smoker  with  open  draft,  p.  348. 
Bisulphide  of  Carbon — Valuable  insecticide,  pp.  380,  487. 
Black  Bee— Common  or  German  race  of  bees,  p.  52. 
Black  Brood— Diseased  brood,  but  not  foul  brood,  p.  482. 
Bottom-Board— Floor  of  hive,  pp.  215,  217,  226. 
Box-Hive— Plain  box  in  which  bees  are  kept,  p.  207. 
Box-Honey — Comb  honey  stored  in  boxes. 
Brace-Combs — Incorrectly  called  "  burr-combs."    Small  columns  of  wax 

connecting  brood-combs,  p.  219. 
Brain— Nerve  mass  in  head  of  insects,  p.  82. 
Breed — Race ;  Italian  breed,  p.  53. 
Breeding-In— Close  breeding,  as  when  a  queen  is  fecundated  by  one  of 

her  own  drones. 
Bridal  Trip- Flight  of  queen  to  meet  drone,  p.  112. 
Brimstoning— Killing  bees  with  sulphur.    Now  happily  obsolete,  pp.  380, 

487. 
Brimstone— Fumigation  with  sulphur  fumes,  pp.  380,  487. 
Broad-Frame— Wide  frame  for  holding  sections,  p.  244. 
Brood— Immature  bees,  or  bees  yet  in  the  cell,  p.  98. 
Brood-Comb— Comb  used  for  breeding,  p.  179. 
Brood-Nest- Space  in  hive  used  for  breeding. 
Brood-Rearing— Rearing  of  brood. 

Brown  Bee — A  supposed  variety  of  the  common  black  bee,  p.  52. 
Bumble-Bee— Our  large  wild  bee  or  humble-bee,  p.  40. 
Burr-Combs- Small  pieces  of  wax  built  above  the  top-bars  of  the  frames, 

p.  219. 

Candied  Honey— Honey  crystallized  or  granulated,  p.  175. 
Cane  Sugar— Common  sugar,  or  the  sugar  of  nectar,  p.  17' 
Cap— Box  to  shut  over  top  of  a  hive,  p.  220. 


GI.OSSARY.  519 

Cap— To  seal  or  close  a  cell. 

Capped  Brood — Brood  sealed. 

Capped  Honey — Honey  sealed. 

Cappings  or  Caps— Thin  wax  sheets  cut  off  In  extracting'. 

Card — Frame  of  comb.     Rare. 

Cardo — Part  of  maxilla,  p.  66. 

Carniolans— Same  as  Krainer.  Race  of  black  bees  from  Krain,  Austria 
pp.  57,  310,  346. 

Carton — Paper  box  to  hold  comb  honey,  p.  882. 

Casts — After-swarms.     Rare. 

Caterpillar — Larva  of  butterfly  or  moth. 

Caucasian  Bee— Variety  of  black  bee,from  Caucasian  Mountaias,pp.  48,52. 

Cell — Opening  in  comb  for  brood,  honey  or  bee-bread,  p.  179. 

Chaff-Hive— A  double-walled  hive  with  space  filled  with  chaff,  pp.  215,459. 

Chitine — Substance  which  makes  crust  of  insects  hard,  p,  32. 

Chyle— Digested  food ;  probable  food  of  larva,  p.  141. 

Chyme — Partially  digested  food ;  word  of  doubtful  use,  p.  141. 

Chrysalid  or  Chrysalis — Pupa  of  butterflies.  Sometimes  applied  to  other 
papae. 

Clamp — Hives  placed  close  together  and  covered,  p.  466. 

Cleansing  Flight — Removing  bees  from  cellar  that  they  may  fly,  p.  464. 

Closed  End  or  Top  Frames— Where  end-bars  of  frames  and  ends  of  top- 
bars  are  close  fitting,  p.  233. 

Cluster — Bees  in  compact  mass,  pp.  166,  167. 

Clustering — Many  bees  hanging  together,  pp.  166,  167. 

Clypeus — Portion  of  head  of  insects  below  the  eyes,  p.  66. 

Cocoon — Case,  often  containing  silk  fibers,  which  surrounds  a  pupa ;  cup 
lining  cells  of  comb,  pp.  90,  101,  162, 184. 

Collateral  System — Side-storing.     English. 

Colon — Part  of  intestine,  rectum,  pp.  89,  145. 

Colony — The  bees  of  one  hive. 

Comb — The  fabric  which  holds  the  brood  and  honey,  p.  179. 

Comb-Basket — The  frame  of  an  extractor  which  holds  the  comb,  p.  323. 

Comb-Carrier — Box  for  carrying  combs;  most  used  in  extracting,  p.  329. 

Comb  foundation — Thin  sheets  of  impressed  wax,  like  the  foundation  of 
real  comb,  p.  353. 

Comb  Foundation  Machine — Machine  for  making  comb  foundation,  p.  3i>4. 

Comb-Guide— Strip  of  wood,  comb  or  foundation  on  the  bottom  of  top- 
bar  of  frame,  to  induce  bees  to  build  comb  in  proper  place,  p.  361. 

Comb-Holder— Device  for  holding  combs,  324. 

Comb  Honey — Honey  in  comb,  p.  335. 

Compound  Eyes — Large  eyes  of  insects,  so  called  as  they  consist  of  many 
simple  eyes,  p.  73. 

Corbicula — Pollen-basket  on  hind  leg  of  worker-bee,  p.  154. 

Cover — Lid  of  hive,  or  cover  of  brood-frames,  pp.  220,  223,  233. 

Coxa — First  part  or  joint  of  the  insect's  leg,  p.  79. 

Crate — Box  for  sections  on  the  hive,or  for  shipping  comb  honey, pp.247,381. 

Cushion— Quilt  or  bag  for  covering  bees,  p.  223. 

Cyprian  Bees — A  yellow  race  from  the  Isle  of  Cyprus,  p.  55. 

Dalmation  Bees — A  variety  of  black  bees  from  Dalmatia,  the   Southwest- 
ern Province  of  Austria,  p.  58. 
Darts — Lancets  of  sting,  p.  157. 
Decoy  Hive— Hives  set  to  catch  absconding  swarms. 
Diarrhea — Dysentery,  p.  475. 


520  GLOSSARY. 

Dipping-Board— Board  for  securing  thin  wax  sheets  in  making  founda- 
tion, p.  358. 

Dividing — Forming  colonies  artificially,  p.  303. 

Division-Board— Board  for  reducing  the  size  of  the  brood-chamber,  p.  222. 

Dollar  Queens — Queen  sold  for  one  dollar,  p.  361. 

Driving  Bees— Causing  the  bees  to  pass  out  of  a  hive  into  a  box  placed 
above  by  rapping  on  the  hive,  258. 

Drone— Male  bee,  p.  121. 

Drone-Brood — Brood  which  produces  drone-bees,  p.  126. 

Drone-Comb— Comb  with  large  cells,in  which  drones  may  be  reared,p.l83. 

Drone-Eggs— Eggs  that  produce  drones,  p.  126. 

Drone-Trap— Trap  for  catching  drones,  p.  285. 

Drumming  Bees — Forcing  bees  from  one  hive  to  another  hive  or  box  by 
rapping  on  the  first  with  a  stick  or  hammer,  p.  258. 

Dry  Feces — Supposed  dry  excreta  of  bees. 

Ductus  Ejaculatorus— Part  of  male  apparatus,  p.  92. 

Dummies — Division-boards,  p.  222. 

Dysentery — Winter  disease  of  bees,  p.  475. 

Dzierzon  Theory— Parthenogenesis ;  agamic  reproduction  ;  theory  that 
unfecundated  eggs  will  develop,  and  in  bees  such  eggs  always  pro- 
duce drones,  p.  126. 

Egg— The  initial  or  first  stage  of  all  the  higher  animals,  pp.  95,  101. 

Egyptian  Bee — Yellow  bee  from  Egypt,  p.  57. 

Eke — Rim  to  raise  and  enlarge  the  hive;  often  a  half  hive. 

Embryo — The  young  animal  while  yet  in  the  egg  or  before  birth. 

Entrance— Opening  of  the  hive  where  the  bees  enter,  p.  217. 

Entrance-Blocks— Pieces  of  wood,  usually  triangular,  for  contracting  or 
closing  the  entrance  of  hive,  p.  217. 

Entrance-Guard — Perforated  zinc  to  prevent  drones  or  queen  from  leav- 
ing the  hive,  p.  285. 

Epicranium— Part  of  bead  between  and  above  the  eyes,  p.  66. 

Epipharynx — Part  of  mouth. 

Extracted  Honey — Honey  thrown  from  comb  by  use  of  extractor,  p.  281. 

Extractor— Machine  for  extracting,  p.  321. 

Exuvium — Cast-skin  of  larva.  Substance  left  in  cell  when  bee  emerges, 
p.  89. 

Eyes — Organs  of  sight  in  insects;  there  are  usually  two  large  compound 
and  three  small  simple  or  Ocelli,  p.  73. 

Feces — Intestinal  excreta  of  animals. 

Farina — Flour ;  incorrectly  used  for  pollen. 

Fecundate — Union  of  sperm  and  germ  cells;  to  impregnate,  p.  103. 

Feeder — Device  for  feeding  bees,  p.  266. 

Femur — Third  and  largest  joint  of  an  insect's  legs,  p.  78. 

Fence — Separator  to  be  used  with  plain  sections,  p.  242. 

Fertile — Productive;  often  used  for  impregnated  or  fecundated.  A  queen 

that  can  lay  eggs  is  fertile ;  after  mating  she  is  fecund. 
Flagellum — Outer  part  of  antenna,  p.  69. 
Foul  Brood— Malignant  disease  of  a  fungoid  character  which  attacks 

bees,  p.  475. 
Foundation,  Fdn.— Stamped  wax  sheets,  p.  353. 
Frame— Device  for  holding  comb  in  the  hive,  p.  227. 
Fumigate — To  surround  with  fumes.    We  fumigate  the  bees  with  smoke 

and  the  combs  with  sulphur  fumes,  pp.  380,  487. 


GI/)SSARY.  521 

Gallup  Frame— Frame  11)^  inches  square,  p.  229. 

Ganglia — Knots  of  nerve. matter  like  the  brain,  p.  81. 

Gastric  Juice— Digestive  ferment  secreted  by  stomach. 

Gena — Cheek  of  insects. 

German  Bee — Common  black  bee,  p.  52. 

Glands — Tubular  or  sack-like  organs  which  form  from  elements  taken 
from  the  blood  a  liquid  called  a  secretion.  Bees  have  several  pairs 
of  glands,  p.  134. 

Glassing — Covering  or  protecting  sections  of  comb  honey  with  glass. 

Glucose — Reducing  sugar,  p.  172. 

Good  Candy — Candy  made  by  mixing  sugar  and  honey,  p.  318. 

Grafted  Cells — Queen-Cells  with  the  larva  replaced  by  another,  p.  278. 

Grafting  Cells— Taking  small  larvae  from  cells  and  placing  them  in  queen- 
cells,  p.  278. 

Granulated  Honey — Honey  that  has  crystallized  or  candied,  p.  175. 

Green  Honey — Unripe  honey,  p.  327. 

Grub — Larva  or  beetle,  p.  98. 

Guide  Comb— Narrow  piece  of  comb  or  starters  fastened  to  top-ba^  of 
frame  or  section,  p.  295. 

Gullet— (Esophagus,  pp.  89,  142. 

Hatch— To  issue  from  egg ;  egg  hatches,  the  brood  develops  and  emerges 
from  cell. 

Hatching  Brood — Incorrectly  used  to  refer  to  bees  coming  from  cells. 

Heart— Circulating  organ ;  in  insects  a  tube  along  the  back,  p.  84. 

Heath  Bees— Variety  of  German  bees  from  Luneberg  Heath,  Europe,  p.  57. 

Heddon  Hive — Hive  with  divided  brood-chamber,  the  division  being  hori- 
zontal, p.  223. 

Heddon-Langstroth  Hive— Langstroth  hive  as  used  by  Heddon,  p.  215. 

Hexapoda — Class  insects,  p.  32. 

Hill's  Device— Curved  sticks  used  to  raise  cloth  a  little  from  the  frames 
in  winter,  p.  456. 

Hive — Box  or  receptacle  for  bees,  p.  207. 

Hiving — Removing  a  swarm  of  bees  from  cluster  to  hive,  p.  297. 

Hiving  Basket  or  Box— Basket  or  box  used  in  hiving  swarms,  p.  397. 

Holy-Land  Bees— Yellow  bees  from  Southern  Palestine,  p.  48. 

Honey — Nectar  digested  by  the  bees,  p.  171. 

Honey-Bee — Apis  Mellifera,  the  domestic  bee,  p.  52. 

Honey-Bag— Honey  stomach,  pp.  89,  143. 

Honey-Board — Board  between  brood-chamber  and  section-case,  p.  219. 

Honey-Box — Box  for  surplus  comb  honey. 

Honey-Comb— Fabric  that  holds  the  honey  and  brood,  p.  179. 

Honey-Dew— Nectar  from  insects  like  Aphides  and  bark-lice,  or  from  ex- 
tra floral  glands,  pp.  392,  393. 

Honey-Extractor— Machine  for  extracting  honey,  p.  321. 

Honey-Gate — Faucet  to  draw  extracted  honey  from  an  extractor  or  barrel. 
It  is  closed  instantly  by  a  slide  or  gate. 

Honey-Knife — A  knife  for  uncapping  honey,  p.  325. 

Honey-Sac — Honey  stomach,  pp.  89,  143. 

Honey-Slinger— Honey  extractor,  p.  321. 

Honey-Stomach — Honey-sac  where  bee  carries  honey,  pp.  89,  143. 

House-Apiary- Building  frost-proof  where  bees  are  kept  continually,p.468. 

Hungarian  Bee — Variety  of  the  black  bee  from  Hungary,  p.  58. 


S22  GLOSSARY. 

Hybrid— Properly  an  animal  which  is  a  cross  between  two  different  spe- 
cies. A  hybrid  bee  is  across  between  two  different  races ;  all  the 
bees  except  the  drones  from  an  Italian  queen  mated  to  a  black 
drone  will  be  hybrids;  the  drones  will  be  pure  if  the  queen  is  (see 
Dzlerzon  theory) . 

Hymenoptera— Order  of  insects  which  Includes  bees,  ants  and  wasps,  p.  35. 

Hymettus— A  mountain  of  Greece  famed  for  its  delicious  honey. 

Hypopharnyx— Membrane  or  curtain  connecting  the  base  of  the  mouth 
organs. 

Ileum— Small  intestine,  pp.  89,  145. 

Imago— The  mature  insect ;  the  last  or  winged  stage  of  an  insect,  p.  101. 

Insects — Hexapoda — Class  of  bee,  p.  32. 

Intestine— Digestive  tube  beyond  the  stomach,  p.  145. 

Introducing- Method  of  making  bees  accept  a  strange  queen,  p.  311. 

Introducing-Cage— Cage  for  introducing  a  queen,  p.  312. 

Inverting — Turning  a  hive,  section,  case  or  frame  bottom  up.    Reversing 

is  also  used,  p.  230. 
Italian  Bee— A  yellow  race  from  Italy.     Every  worker-bee  has  three  well 

marked  yellow  bands,  pp.  53,  307. 
Italianizing— Changing  bees  from  some  other  race  to  Italians,  p.  306. 

Jaws— Same  as  mandibles,  p.  146. 

Krainer  Bees — Bees  from  Krain,  Austria ;  same  as  Carniolans,  pp.  57, 
310,  346. 

Labium — Under  lip  of  an  insect,  pp.  66,  131. 

Labrum — Upper  lip  of  an  insect,  p.  66. 

Lamp-Nursery — Tin  double-walled  box  used  for  rearing  queens,  p.  286. 

Langstroth  Frame — Adopted  by  Mr.  Langstroth  for  his  hive ;  size  17^  by 

93^,  p.  215. 
Langstroth  Hive — L.  Hive;  hive  with  frame  suspended  in  a  case  or  box; 

invented  by  Rev.  L.  L.  Langstroth,  p.  210. 
Larva — plu.  Larvae — Immature  bees,  p.  98. 
Laying  Worker — Worker-bee  that  lays  eggs,  p.  130. 
Ligula — End  of  labium;  the  tongue  in  bees,  pp.  66,  131. 
Ligurian  Bee — Same  as  Italian ;  named  from  Liguria,  a  province  in  Italy, 

pp.  53,  307. 
Lining  Bees — Noting  direction  of  flight  to  find  bee-tree,  etc.,  p.  262. 
Loose  Frames — Frames  not  fixed,  p.  233. 
Lora — Part  of  labium,  p.  132. 

Maggot — Footless  larva  of  two-winged  flies ;  often  applied  to  any  footless 

larvae. 
Maiden  Swarm — First  swarm. 

Malpighian  Tubules — Renal  tubules  attached  to  the  stomach,  p.  90. 
Mandibles — Main  jaws  of  insects,  p.  146. 
Manipulation — Handling. 
Marriage  Flight — Mating  of  queen,  p.  112. 

Mat — Flexible  cover  to  place  over  brood-frames,  made  of  slats,  straw,  etc. 
Maturing  Brood — Where  the  bees  are  just  emerging  from  the  cells. 
Maxillae — The  second  or  under  jaws  of  insects,  pp.  66, 131. 
Mel  Extractor — Honey  extractor,  p,  321. 
Meliput — Honey  extractor,  p,  321. 
Mentum — Second  joint  of  labium  or  under  lip,  p.  131. 


GLOSSARY.  S23 

Meso-Thorax— Second  joint  of  thorax,  p.  78. 

Meta-Thorax — Third  joint  of  thorax,  p,  78. 

Metal  Corners — Tins  to  fasten  and  unite  corners  of  frames. 

Micropyle — Openings  in  eggs  where  sperm-cells  enter,  p.  101. 

Midrib  of  Comb— Center  partition  of  comb,  p.  182. 

Miller — Moth,  which  is  the  more  proper  word,  p.  482. 

Mismated— Not  purely  mated. 

Moth — All  scale-winged  insects  except  butterflies. 

Moth-Larva — Immature  moth,  p.  483. 

Moth-Miller — Incorrect  term  often  used  for  moth,  p.  484. 

Moth-Trap — Trap  for  catching  moths. 

Movable-Frame  Hive — Langstroth  hive,  p.  210. 

Muscles — Organs  that  produce  motion,  p.  80. 

Nadir— The  under  story  of  a  two-story  hive;  a  wide  eke,  p.  213, 

Nectar — Sweet  substance,  as  the  liquid  in  nectaries  of  flowers,  p.  171. 

Nectaries— Nectar-glands  of  flowers. 

Nerves— White  threads  which  connect  organs  to  convey  impressions  or 
impulses,  p.  81. 

Nervures  of  Wings — Same  as  veins,  p.  45. 

Neuter — Incorrect  name  for  worker-bees ;  they  are  not  neuters,  but  unde- 
veloped females,  p.  129. 

New  Idea  Hive — Long  one-story  hive  with  many  frames. 

Non-Swarming  Hive — A  purely  ideal  hive,  supposed  to  prevent  swarming. 

Normal — Usual;  regular. 

Nucleus— plural,  nuclei;  miniature  colony  of  bees  for  queen-rearing,p.281. 

Nurse-Bees — Young  bees  or  ones  that  feed  the  brood,  p.  164. 

Nursery— Device  for  rearing  queens.    See  lamp-nursery,  p.  286. 

Nymph — An  insect  in  the  pupa  state;  the  immature  bee  in  cell  that  is  the 
form  of  adult  bea  is  a  nymph,  p.  99. 

Observatory  Hive — Hive  with  glass  sides,  so  that  bees  can  be  seen  without 

disturbing  them,  p.  238. 
Ocelli — Simple  eyes  on  epicranium,  usually  three,  p.  73. 
CEsophagus — Tube  leading  from  pharynx  to  honey-stomach,  pp.  89,  142. 
Open  Sections — Sections  that  do  not  touch  on  sides,  p.  240. 
Ovary — Essential  organs  of  the  female,  where  the  eggs  grow,  p.  94. 
Over-stocking — Where  more  bees  are  kept  than  a  locality  can  supply  with 

a  full  harvest  of  nectar. 
Oviduct — Tube  for  passage  of  egg  from  ovary,  p.  94. 
Ovipositor — Same  as  oviduct,  p.  94. 
Ovum— Egg,  pp.  95,  101. 

Palestine  Bees— Race  of  yellow  bees  found  in  Southern  Syria ;  the  so- 
called  Holy-Land  bees,  p.  48. 

Paraffine — Wax-like  crystalline  substance  used  to  coat  barrels  and  pre- 
vent leakage ;  one  of  the  products  of  crude  petroleum. 

Parasite — An  organism  that  feeds  upon  another,  p.  37. 

Parent  Colony — The  colony  from  which  a  swarm  has  issued. 

Paraglossae — Short  appendages  at  base  of  tongue,  pp,  67,  132. 

Parthenogenesis — Reproduction  without  males,  p.  126. 

Pasturage — Plants  from  which  food  is  secured,  p.  389. 

Pecten  of  Legs — Fringe  or  comb  of  hairs. 

Perforated  Zinc — Zinc  with  holes  cut  so  worker-bees  can  pass,  but  drones 
and  queens  can  not,  p.  219. 

Pharynx — Throat  or  back  of  the  mouth,  p.  89. 


524  GI,0SSARY. 

Phenol — Pure  carbolic  acid,  p.  479. 

PiDcers— Wax  jaws  of  hind  legs,  p.  153. 

Piping  of  Queens— Noise  made  by  young  queens  when  one  has  emerged 

from  cell  and  others  have  not,  p.  168. 
Plain  Sections— Sections  with  no  inset  or  bee-way ;  the  edges  are  straight, 

p.  241. 
Planta— Soles  or  bottom  of  feet,  p.  150. 
Poison-Sac— Sac  at  base  of  sting  to  hold  the  poison,  p.  157. 
Pollen — Male  cell  or  element  of  flowers ;  bee-bread. 
Pollen-Basketr-Corbicula ;  cavity  on  posterior  leg  for  carrying  pollen, 

p.  186. 
Pollen -Ctombs— Rows  of  hairs  on  first  tarsus  of  second  and  third  pairs  of 

legs  of  worker,  on  the  inside,  also  pecten,  p.  153. 
Pollen-Hairs— Compound  or  webbed  hairs  of  bees,  used  for  collecting 

pollen,  p.  79. 
Portico^Porch  to  hive,  p.  210. 
Pound  Section— Section  4)^  inches  square,  p.  242. 
Prime  Swarm — First  swarm. 
Prize  Section— Section  6i^  by  5)^  inches,  p.  242. 
Propolis— Bee-glue. 

Propolize — To  cover  with  propolis,  p.  190. 
Prothorax- First  joint  of  thorax,  p.  78. 
Prune— To  cut  out  undesirable  comb,  as  drone  or  old. 
Pufl-Ball — A  large  fungus,  which,  when  pressed,  sends  out  myriads  of 

spores;  it  is  sometimes  used  to  subdue  bees. 
Pulvilli — Adhesive  disks  on  the  last  joint  of  an  insect's  leg,  p.  150. 
Pupa— Third  stage  of  insects,  that  between  larva  and  imago ;  also  called 

nymph,  p.  99. 
Pygidium — Last  joint  of  abdomen. 

Queen — Mother-bee,  p.  102. 

Queen-Cage — Cage  for  introducing  queen,  p.  312. 

Queen-Cell — Cell  in  which  queen  is  reared,  pp.  100,  111. 

Queenless — Having  no  queen. 

Queen-Rearing — Rearing  of  queens,  p.  273. 

Queen  Register — Card  to  show  state  of  hive  as  to  queen,  p.  291. 

Queen's  Voice — Noise  made  by  queen  like  piping;  true  voice,  p.  168. 

Queen-Yard— Box  with  perforated  zinc,  to  keep  a  clipped  queen  from 

being  lost  when  she  comes  ou  t  with  a  swarm ;  also  called  queen-trap. 
Quilt — Cover  for  brood-framee,  consisting  of  two  cloths  containing  wool 

or  cotton  sewed  together,  p.  223. 
Quinby  Hive — Large  fluber  style  of  hive,  p.  235. 
Quinby  Frame— Large  frame  18X  by  113^  inches,  p.  227. 
Quincunx — Where  things  in  rows  alternate,  thus,  .  •  .  •  . 

Rabbet— Where  one  side  of  the  edge  of  a  board  is  planed  down  for  a  short 
distance,  p.  216. 

Race — Breed.  Where  a  variety  has  been  closely  bred  so  long  as  to  trans- 
mit its  peculiarities  to  its  offspring.    Race  is  a  natural  breed,  p.  52. 

Rack — Crate  or  case ;  section-rack. 

Rectal  Glands — Glands  in  the  rectum,  p.  146. 

Rectum — Large  intestine,  p.  146. 

Rendering  Wax — Melting  and  cleaning  wax,  367. 

Reversing — Inverting;  turning  bottom  up,  pp.  229,  339. 

Rhomb — Four  equal  sided  figure,  two  of  whose  opposite  angles  are  equal 
and  acute,  the  others  equal  and  obtuse. 


GI,OSSARY.  S2S 

Ripe  Honey— Honey  that  has  cured  or  evaporated,  so  it  is  thick,  p.  337. 
Robbing— When  bees  steal  honey  from  another  colony,  p.  473. 
Royal  Jelly — Food  fed  to  queen-larvae,  p.  108. 

Saliva — Secretion  of  the  mouth,  p.  91. 

Scape — Base  of  antenna,  p.  69. 

Scouts— Bees  that  go  forth  just  before  swarming  to  find  and  prepare  the 

new  home,  p.  166. 
Seal— To  close. 

Sealed  Brood — Brood  in  cells  that  the  bees  have  capped,  p.  162. 
Sealed  Honey— Honey  in  cells  that  are  capped,  p.  183. 
Section— Small  frame  for  comb  honey,  239. 
Seminal  Vesicle — Sac  to  hold  sperm-cells  or  semen,  p.  93. 
Separator— Wood  or  tin  strip,  very  thin,  for  separating  sections,  so  that 

bees  will  build  straight  and  true  combs,  p.  250. 
Septum — Base  between  cells  of  comb;  incorrectly  called  midrib,  p.  182. 
Sholtz  Candy — Good  candy;  sugar  and  honey  mixed;  invented  years  ago 

by  Sholtz,  a  German,  p.  318. 
Skep — Straw  hive,  such  as  were  used  in  olden  times. 
Smell — Sense  located  in  antennae  of  insects,  p.  70. 
Smoker — Instrument  used  to  smoke  or  quiet  bees,  p.  348. 
Smyrnian  Bees— A  variety  or  race  of  bees  from  a  province— Smyrna— in 

Asiatic  Turkey,  d.  58. 
Species— Animals  so  long  bred  as  to  have  distinctive  characteristics  more 

fixed,  p.  52. 
Spent  Queen — One  sterile  with  age,  p.  118. 

Spermatheca — The  sac  off  oviduct  of  queen  that  holds  the  sperm,  p.  104. 
Spermatozoae — Sperm-cells;  the  male  element  or  fecundating  principle, 

Spring  Dwindling— Rapid  dying  of  bees  in  the  spring,  p.  466. 

Stand — Support  of  hive.     Incorrectly  used  for  colony. 

Starter — A  small  piece  of  comb  or  foundation  fastened  to  the  top-bar  of  a 

hive,  295. 
Sterile  Queen — One  that  does  not  lay,  or  whose  eggs  do  not  hatch,  p.  118. 
Sting— The  organ  of  defense  of  bees,  wasps,  etc.,  p.  156. 
Stock— Wrongly  used  for  colony ;  if  used  at  all  it  should  refer  to  bees, 

hive  and  all. 
Stomach — Where  the  food  is  mainly  digested,  pp.  90,  143. 
Stomach-Mouth — Organ  at  base  of  honey-stomach,  p.  142. 
Storify — Used  in  England  for  adding  upper  stories  to  hives. 
Storifying — English,  tiering  up. 

Strain — A  variety,  as  a  strain  of  bees,  developed  by  the  bee-keeper. 
Strained  Honey — Honey  strained  through  a  cloth,  not  extracted  honey. 
Sulphur— A  yellow  mineral  used  to  fumigate  honey. 

Super— Upper  story,  either  for  extracted  honey  or  honey  in  6ections,p.2i4. 
Supersede — To  replace  with  another. 
Swarm — Bees  that  leave  hive  in  natural  division,  p.  166. 
Swarming-Basket — Basket  to  convey  swarm  from  place  of  clustering  to 

hive,  297. 
Swarming  Impulse  or  Fever — Desire  of  the  bees  to  swarm. 
Swarming  Season — Season  of  year  when  bees  are  likely  to  swarm. 
Syrian  Bee — Race  of  yellow  bees  from  Northern  Palestine,  p.  55. 

Taking  up  Bees — Destroying  bees  to  get  the  honey.    Rare  now. 

Tarsus— Last  one  to  five  joints  of  insect  leg;  foot,  p.  79. 

Tested  Queen— One  proved  pure  by  examination  of  her  offspring. 


S26  GI/JSSARY. 

Thorax — Second  part  of  insect's  body,  p.  64. 

Tibia— Fourth  joint  of  an  insect's  leg,  from  the  body,  p.  79. 

Tibial  Spur— Spur  at  end  of  tibia,  p.  79. 

Tier  Up — Setting  additional  stories  or  supers  of  sections  on  a  hive. 

Tongue— Sucking  tube  of  bee,  p,  132. 

Tracheae — Air-tubes  or  turbular  lungs  of  insects,  p.  81. 

Transferring — Removing  colony  of  bees  from  one  hive  to  another,  p.  258. 

Transformations — Changes  from  larva  to  pupa  to  imago,  p.  96. 

Travel-Stain— Soil  of  comb  when  left  long  in  hive. 

Trochanter — Second  joint  of  insect's  leg,  79. 

Uncapping — Cutting  caps  from  comb-cells,  p.  325. 

Unfertile — Queen  or  eggs  that  can  not  produce  young. 

Uunicomb  Hive — Hive  with  one  comb  and  glass  sides ;  observatory  hive, 

p.  238. 
Uniting — To  put  two  or  more  colonies  into  one,  p.  465. 
Unqueening — Removing  queen  from  colony. 
Unripe — Thin  honey ;  honey  not  cured  or  evaporated,  p.  327. 
Unsealed — Applied  to  honey  and  brood  when  not  capped. 
Untested  Queen— One  whose  purity  has  not  been  demonstrated. 
Urinary  Tubules — Tubes  attached  to  the  stomach  of  a  bee,  p.  9o. 

Variety — Division  of  a  race ;  a  strain,  p.  52. 

Veil — Protection  for  face,  p.  344. 

Velum— Part  of  antenna  cleaner,  p.  148. 

Ventilation — Changing  the  air  so  it  shall  be  constantly  pure. 

Virgin — Unmated  queen. 

Wax — Secretion  formed  between  the  abdominal  segments  of  worker-bees, 
p.  155. 

Wax-press — Press  for  expressing  wax,  p.  371. 

Wax-extractor — Device  for  separating  the  wax  from  comb,  p.  367. 

Wax  Plates  or  Pockets — Place  where  the  wax-scales  form  on  the  underside 
of  a  worker-bee,  p.  155. 

Wedding  Flight- Flight  of  queen  to  mate  with  the  drone,  p.  112. 

Wild  Bees — Bees  in  the  forest,  etc.,  with  no  owner. 

Wind-Break — High  fence  or  evergreen  hedge  to  protect  from  wind,  p.  253. 

Winter-Passages — Holes  through  the  center  of  combs  so  bees  can  pass 
through,  p.  456. 

Wired-Frames — Frames  with  opposite  sides  connected  with  fine  wire,  pp. 
230,  364. 

Worker-Bees — The  undeveloped  females ;  the  bees  that  do  the  work  ex- 
cept that  of  egg-laying. 

Worker-Eggs — Eggs  that  develop  into  workers,  p.  129. 

Worm — Term  usually  applied  to  a  larva ;  really  a  footless  cylindrical 
animal  like  an  angle-worm,  p.  31. 


INDEX 


A  B  C  of  Bee-Culture 24 

Abdomen  of  insects 54,    64 

Abnormal  swarming 170 

Absconding  swarms 305 

prevented 305 

Acacia 409 

Advanced  bee-culture 25 

Adulteration 175,  176,  372 

After  swarms 168 

Agamic  reproduction 114 

Air  tubes 87 

Albino  bees 55 

Alfalfa 420 

figure  of 418,  419,  420 

Alighting-board 215 

Alimentary  canal 81,    89 

Alley  queen-rearing 276 

Alsike  clover 397,  416 

figure  of 416 

Amateur  bee-keepers 13,  16,  305 

American  Bee  Journal 22 

American  Bee-Keeper 23 

Anatomy  of  honey-bee 102 

Anatomy  of  insects 64 

Antenna  cleaner 148 

figure  of 148 

function  of 149 

Antennae JO 

description  of 70 

figure  of 69 

function  of 70 

smell  organ 70 

Ants 37,  500 

Florida 501 

Apatus  (cuckoo  bees) 43 

Aphis 390 

Apiary 253 

grape-vine -so* 

grounds  of 254 

grove  for 264 

location  of 205 

shade  for 255 


Apif uge 350 

Apis 39,    44 

species  of 45 

wholly  foreign 48,    52 

Apis  dorsata 48 

figure  of 49 

Apis  mellifera 52 

Apparatus  for  comb  honey 23^ 

April  honey-plants 401 

Arachnida 34,    35" 

Aristotle 53,    59 

Arthropoda 31 

Articulates 31 

Artificial  increase 303 

method  of 303 

Asparagus 443 

Associations 375 

Asters 449 

figure  of 447 

Axioms 515 

Apidae 38 

description  of 38 

larva  of 38 

Bacon  beetle 488 

figure  of 488 

Baker,  Mrs.  L.  B 18 

Balling  of  queen 312 

Banana 409 

Barberry 408 

figure  of 409 

Bark-lice 389 

figure  of 389 

honey  from 390 

how  to  kill 39q 

Barrels  for  honey 333,  378 

figure  of 378 

soft  wood 333,  378 

waxing 333,  378 

Basil 443 

Basswood 432 

figure  of 434 


528 


Bee-books  (see  books^ 24 

Bee-bread  (see  pollen) 186 

Bee-dress 345 

for  ladies 345 

Bee-enemies 482 

Bee-escapes 340 

figure  of 341 

Bee-glue  (see  propolis) 190 

function  of 190 

Bee-hat. 344 

figure  of 345 

Bee-hawk 497 

figure  of 497 

Bee-hives 207 

Bee-house 461,  469 

figure  of 470 

for  winter 461 

Bee-journals 22 

Bee-keepers- 
farmers  as 13,    14 

in  cities 13 

ladies  as 13,    17 

Bee-Keepers'  Review 23 

Bee-Keeping  for  Beginners 25 

Bee-keeping 201 

aids  the  nation 20 

aids  to 21 

attending  coven tions. .    21 

books 24 

papers 22 

visiting  bee-keepers. ..    21 

for  women 17 

inducements  to 14 

preparation  for '. .  201 

proceeds  from 20 

profits  of 15 

requisites  to  successful 21 

enthusiasm 27 

experience 21 

mental  effort 21 

promptitude 26 

Bee-killers 488 

Georgia 491 

figure  of 492 

Louisiana 490 

figure  of 490 

Missouri 488 

figure  of 489 

Nebraska 490 

Bee-louse 499 

figure  of 499 

Bee-mite 506 

figure  of 506 

Bce-mpth 482 

cocoons  of 484 


£ee-Moth— {Continued) : 

figure  of 484 

description  of 482 

figure  of 484 

fumigation  for 487 

galleries  of 483 

figure  of 483 

history  of 485 

remedies  for 486 

wee 487 

figure  of 487 

Bee-papers — 

American  Bee  Journal 22 

American  Bee-Keeper 23 

Bee-Keepers'  Review 23 

British  Bee  Journal 25 

Canadian  Bee  Journal 23 

Gleanings  in  Bee-Culture . .    23 

Lone  Star  Apiarist 24 

Progressive  Bee-Keeper...    24 

Bee-pasturage 389 

Bee-poison 14 

inoculated  with 14 

Bee-space 217 

Bee-stabber 496 

figure  of 496 

Bees 38,  102 

branch  of 31 

collections  of 44 

diseases  of 475 

do  not  injure  fruit 394 

do  not  injure  flowers 394 

handling  of 343 

how  to  move 319 

kinds  of  in  colony 102 

larvae 39 

moving 306 

natural  history 38,  103 

quieting 346 

shipping 219,  385 

sold  by  the  pound 386 

species  of 52 

useful 13,  395 

which  are  best 305,  310 

who  may  keep 13 

amateurs 13 

specialists 13 

who  should  not  keep 14 

Bees  and  honey 25 

Beeswax 364 

Bee-tent 332.  351 

figure  of 332,  351 

Root's 332 

figure  of 333 


529 


Beetles 36 

tmcon 488 

figure  of 488 

blister 504 

figure  of 505 

meal 488 

figure  of 488 

Bee-trees 262 

hunting 262 

Bee-veil 344 

figure  of 345 

Beggar-ticks 449 

Benton,  Frank 47,50,51,    55 

importing  bees 47 

Benton  cage 313,  318 

figure  of 317 

Bergamot 439 

Bibliography 59,  191 

Bingham 40 

Bingham  hive 236 

figure  of 237 

Bingham  knife 325 

figure  of 325 

Bingham  smoker 348 

figure  of 347 

Birds  destroying  fruit 394 

Bisulphide  of  carbon.  .342,  380,  487 
Black  bee  (seo  German  bee) . . .  309 

Blackberry 427 

Black  brood 482 

Black  gum 409 

Black  sage 408 

figure  of 410 

Blister  beetles 504 

figure  of 505 

Block  for  frame  making 231 

figure  of 231 

Blood  of  insects 85 

Blue-gum 445 

Blue-thistle  (viper's  bugloss) . .  445 
Boardman's  wax -extractor 369 

figure  of 370 

Bokhara  clover 420 

Bonibus 39,    40 

Boneset 439 

figure  of 438 

Books 24,  57,  191 

A  B  C  of  Bee-Culture 24 

Advanced  Bee-Culture 25 

Bee-Keeping  for  Beginners    25 

Bees  and  Bee-Keeping 25 

Bees  and  Honey 25 

Foreign 25 

Langstrothon  the  Honey- 

Bee 452 

on  Botany 453 


Books—  {Continued)  : 

Scientific  Bee-Keeping 25 

The  Honey-Bee 25 

Borage 421 

figure  of 431 

Borers  in  locust-tree 429 

Botany 452 

Atkinson's 452 

Bessey's 452 

Coulter's 452 

books  on 452 

Gray's 452 

Bottles  for  honey 376 

figure  of 376 

Bottom-board 215,  217,  225 

figure  of..   : 236 

Box  for  packing  hives 458 

Box-hives 207 

Brain  of  bee 83 

figure  of 83 

Brain  01  in  sects 83 

figure  of 81,83,    85 

Branch  Arthropoda 31 

Bridal  trip 112 

Brimstone 342,  380,  487 

British  Bee  Journal 25 

Brood  caps 183 

Brood-chamber,  restricting 336 

Brush 330 

Coggshall 330 

figure  of 330 

Davie  330 

figure  of 330 

Buckthorn 409 

Buckwheat 448 

figurt  of 445 

Wild 430 

figure  of 431 

Bumble-bees 40 

Burying  bees 406 

Button-bush 440 

figure  of 439 

Cage 287,  311,  317,  318 

figureof 285,  311,  312,  317 

for  queens. . .  .287,  311,  317,  319 

mailing 319 

Peet 287 

Caging  queens 311,  318 

Calendar \ 512 

California  bee-killer 507 

figureof 508 

Canadian  Bee  Journal 23 

Candied  honey 175,  328 

reliquified 357 


530 


INDEX. 


Candy 318,  457 

Good 318,  457 

Cans 333,  378 

for  extracted  honey 333,  378 

uncapping 331 

Carbolic  acid 479 

for  foul  brood 479 

to  quiet  bees 349 

Carniolan  bees 57,  310 

description  of 57 

figure  of  56,    57 

Carpenter  bees 40 

Cases  247 

for  marketing 381 

Heddon 248 

Hilton 248 

one  story 381 

plain  section 249 

Southard 247 

two-story 382 

Catalpa 445 

Catnip 443 

Caucasian 58 

Cell 182 

capping  of 162 

Cellar 462 

Centipedes 34 

Benton 317,  318 

figure  of 317 

Chaff  hive 215,  459 

figure  of 214,  461 

Chapman's  honey-plant 436 

Cheshire  ..25,  72,  107,  233,  303,  477 

Chinquapin 409 

Chitine 32 

Chloroform  for  bees 349 

Chyle 141 

Cider 394 

Circulatory  system  of  insects. .    85 

Clamps 466 

Clark's  cold-draft  smoker 348 

figure  of 348 

Class  Insecta 32 

Claws 150 

figure  of 150 

Cleansing  flight 464 

Cleome 439,  452 

Clipping  queen's  wing 288 

how  done 288 

very  desirable 288 

Clover 413 

Alsike 397,  418 

crimson 416 

mammoth  red 416,  429 

red 416 


Clover^{Continued) : 

sweet 416 

white 397,  418 

Clustering 166,  169 

figure  of 167 

Clute,  0 15,    16 

Clypeuci 66 

Cocoon — 

of  bees 162 

of  insects 100 

of  queen 110 

Coggshall  brush 130 

figure  of 130 

Cold-draft  smoker 348 

College  bee-house 469 

figure  of 470 

Colonies,  how  to  move 319 

Columella 59 

Comb 179 

cells  of 180,  182 

fastening 260 

figure  of 181 

how  to  keep 380,  487 

thickness  of 360 

transferring  of 258 

figure  of 250 

Comb-basket 322 

Comb-box 329,  472 

figure  of 369 

Comb-cart 329 

figure  of 329 

Comb-cells 180,  182 

size  of 182 

Comb  foundation 353 

American 364 

figure  of 363 

history  of 353 

how  made 357 

machines 355 

roller 355 

figure  of 355 

Comb-cutter 359 

press 359 

figure  of 356 

Comb-guide 228,  364 

Comb-holder 326 

Comb  honey 335 

desirable 335 

high  priced 335 

how  to  secure 335,  342 

remove  queens 337 

restrict  brood-chamber  336 

strong  colonies 335 

swarming  checked. . . .  336 


531 


Comb  Honey — (Continued): 

marketing  of 350 

rules  for 350 

Bhipping  case  for 281 

figure  of 381,  382 

stor  d  before  shipping 380 

Comb  6  and 316 

Valentine's 316 

figure  of 315 

Young's 316 

figure  of 315 

Compound  eyes 73 

Copulation 95,  112 

only  once 114 

kills  the  drone 95,  127 

Coral 186 

fossil  honey-comb 186 

figure  of 184,  185 

Coral-berry 451 

Corbicula 39,  154 

figure  of 152 

Corn 438 

Cotton 430 

figuieo! 432 

Covers 220 

cloth 223 

Cow  killer 502 

figure  of 502 

Cow-pea 393 

figure  of 393 

Coxa 79 

Crab 34 

Crawfish 34 

Crimson  clover 416 

figure  of 417 

Crustacea 34 

Cyprian  race 55,  310 

description  of 55 

Cuckoo  bees 45 

Culver's-root 444 

Cuvier 31 

Cyprian  bees 55,  310 

Dadant 337 

pamphlet  of 379 

Dadant's  uncapping-can 381 

figure  of 382 

Daisy  foundation  fastener 362 

figure  of 362 

Dalmatian  bees 581 

Dandelion 402 

Datames 35,  507 

Dextrose 173 

Digestive  system  of  insects 89 

figure  of 81 


Dipping-board 358 

Dipping-stick 277 

figure  of 277 

Diptera 36 

Diseases  of  bees 475 

Dissecting  microscope 68 

figure  of 68 

Dissection 68,    95 

instruments  for 68,    95 

Dividing 303 

method  of 303 

Division-board 222 

figure  of 219 

perforated-zinc 219 

use  of 222,  338 

Dollar  queens 316 

Doolittle's  Queen-Rearing 25 

Dovetailed  hive 217 

figure  of 217 

Driving  bees 258 

Drone 121 

antenna  of 123 

brood  of 126 

characters  of 121 

comb  of 181 

copulation  of 137 

destruction  of 126 

development  of 126 

eggs 126 

figure  of 133 

food  of .-. ..  126 

function  of '. 127 

glands  of 125 

head  of 122 

figure  of 123 

how  to  select 285 

legof 123 

figure  of 122 

longevity  of 136 

mating  of 137 

mouth  parts  of 122 

organs  of 123 

figure  of 93 

purity  of 128 

spermatozoa  of 134 

figure  of 134 

testes  of 133 

figure  of 134 

trap  for 385 

figure  of 384 

weight  of 131 

Drumming  out 258 

Dufour's  theory 146 

Dummy  (see  division-board)..  323 
Dunham  foundation  machine.  355 
Dzierzon  theory 114,  126 


532 


Easel 316 

Uses  of 315 

Valeatioe's 316 

Young's 316 

Eggs 96,  104 

development  of 97 

Egg-laying 117 

Eggsof  insects 104 

figures  of 101 

Egyptian  bees 57 

Enemies  of  bees 482 

ants 500 

Florida  ants 501 

bacon-beetle 488 

bee-hawks 497 

bee-kUlers  488,  507 

bee-stabber 496 

blister-beetle 504 

California  bee-killer 507 

cow-killer 502 

king-bird 508 

louse 499 

mantis 503 

meal-beetle 488 

mice 509 

mite 506 

moth 482 

robber-flies 488 

shrew 510 

skunks 611 

spiders 508 

stinging-bug 493 

tachina-fly 498 

toads 509 

wasps 505 

Entomological  books 59,  191 

Entrance 214,  217 

Entrance-blocks 217 

Entrance-guards 285 

figure  of 284 

Eucalyptus 445,  406 

figure  of 405 

Extracted  honey 333,  376 

Dadant's  book  on 327 

how  to  keep 333 

management  of 327 

ripening  of 334 

Extracting 329 

Extractor 321,  367 

honey 321 

wax 367 

Eyes  of  insects 73 

compound 73 

illustrated 73,74,    75 

sitpple 73 


Fairs 387 

what  they  should  be 387 

Fabricias 61 

Family  of  honey-bee 38 

Farmers  as  bee-keepers .  13,  17,  300 

Favosites  coral 186 

Feces 91 

Fecundation,  voluntary 116 

Feed  for  bees 265 

how  much 265 

howto 266 

what  to 265 

when  to 264,  456 

Feeders 264 

close  bottom-board  for 271 

division-board 267 

figure  of 267 

fruit-jars  for 268 

figure  of 268 

Heddon 270 

figure  of 271 

Shuck 269 

figure  of 269 

Simplicity 269 

figure  of 269 

Smith 271 

figure  of 271 

Feeding 264 

care  in 272 

in  hives 271 

purpose  of 264 

winter 456 

Female  organs 93,  103 

figure  of 94 

Femur 79 

Fence  for  sections 249 

figure  of 242,  249 

Fertilization  by  bees 394 

Figwort 435 

figure  of 435 

Fire-weed 450 

figure  of 450 

Flight  of  bees 147 

rapidity  of 147 

Florida  ant 501 

figure  of 501 

Flowers,  fertilized  by  bees 394 

Foot-power  saw 251 

Barnes' 251 

Foreign  books 25 

Formalin 95 

Foul  brood 475 

figures  of 476,  477,  478 

nature  of 475 

remedies  for 479 


533 


Foul  Srood— {Continued)  : 

fasting 480 

phenol 479 

salicylic  acid 479 

Foundation 353 

American 354 

cutting  of 358 

fastener 361,  362 

figure  of 353 

for  brood-frames 359 

for  sections 360 

history  of 353 

how  made 357 

machines 354 

figure  of 355 

to  fasten 361 

use  of 359 

Weed's 356 

Foundation  cutter 359 

figure  of 359 

Foundation  machine 355 

Dunham , 355 

figure  of 355 

Root 354 

Van  Deusen 356 

Foundation  press 357 

figure  of 356 

Fountain  pump 305 

Fog  fruit 444 

Frames 227 

figures  of  .227, 228, 229,  233, 

244 245 

GaUup 228 

figure  of 228 

history  of 209 

Hoffman : 233 

figure  of 233 

how  made 229 

Langstroth 227 

reversible 229 

figure  of 229 

section 244 

spacing 233 

wired 364 

figure  of 229,  365 

Frame  hives 209 

Munn 209 

figure  of 209 

DeBeauvoys 210 

Frame-making 211 

block  for 211 

figure  of 211 

Fruit,sound,not  injured  by  bees  394 

Fruit-jar  feeder 268 

figure  of 268 

Fumigation 380,  487 


Gall-berry 401 

Gall-flies 38 

Gallup  frame 228 

Ganglia 81 

Genus '  44 

Apis 44 

of  the  honey-bee 44 

German  race 52,  309 

descriptiion  of ■.    52 

Gill  or  ground-ivy 430 

Gillette,  Prof 354,  360 

experiments  with  comb 360 

experiments  with  fdn 354 

Girard 83,  104,  154 

Given  press 357 

figure  of 356 

Glands 136 

figures  of 138,139,  140 

of  bees 136 

of  insects 91 

of  larva 136 

of  Meckel 137 

of  Ramdohr 137 

of  Siebold 136 

of  thorax 137 

functions  of 138 

of  upper  head 137 

functions  of 137 

wax 156 

Wolff's 138 

figure  of 139 

Gleanings  in  Bee-Culture 23 

Glossary 517 

Gloves 344 

of  buckskin 344 

of  cloth 345 

of  rubber 344 

Glucose 172 

Golden  honey-plant 440 

Goldenrod 449 

figure  of 446 

Good  candy 318 

Grading  honey 373,  384 

figure  of 373,  384 

Granulated  honey 175,  328 

Grapes  and  bees 394 

Grape-vine  apiary 255 

figure  of 257 

Grounds  for  apiary 253 

made  safe  in  city 254 

Grove  for  apiary 253,  256 

Grubs 98 

Guide-comb 228,  364 

Handling  bees 343 

Harrison,  Mrs.  L 17 


534 


Hauser 71 

locates  sense  of  smell 71 

Head  of  insects 64 

organs  of 64 

figures  of.   123 

Hearing  in  insects 72 

Heart  of  insects 85 

figure  of 85 

Heath  bees 57 

Heddon  feeder 270 

figure  of 271 

Heddon  hive 224 

figure  of 225 

Heddon  L.  hive 215 

figure  of 216 

Heddon  surplus-case 220 

figure  of 216 

Hercules'  club 449 

Hermaphrodites 118 

Herzegovinian  bees 58 

Hill's  device 456 

figure  of 216 

Hill,  Harry  E 23,  501 

Hiv4 207 

Bingham 236 

box 207 

chaff 215,  459 

cover  of 220 

DeBeauvoys 210 

dovetailed 217 

figure  of 217 

Dzierzon 210 

entrance  to 214,  217 

Heddon 223 

figure  of 225 

HeddonL 215 

figure  of 216 

Huber 234 

kind  to  buy 207,  215 

Langstroth 210 

figure  of 210 

lumber  for 213 

Munn 209 

figure  of 209 

observatory 238 

figure  of 238 

one-story 213 

figure  of 212 

place  for 254 

Quinby 235 

figure  of 235 

reversible 224 

Schmidt 210 

Shuck 226 

Simplicity 213 


Hive —  ( Continued) : 

two-story 213,  218 

figure  of 213 

Hiving 297 

figure  of 298 

Hiving-basket 297 

Hoffman  frames 233 

figure  of 233 

Honey 171 

albumen  of 171,  173 

analysis  of 172 

composition  of 171,  173 

for  food 373 

from  cider-mills 394 

from  maple 394 

from  sap 394 

from  stubble 394 

function  of 176 

grading 373 

granulation  of 175,  328 

recipes  for  use 384 

ripening  of  .   334 

source  of 171 

tests  for 172 

unreliable 172 

Honey-bee 102 

branch  of 31 

natural  history  of 102 

Honey-board  (slatted) 219 

queen-excluding 218,  338 

Honey-comb 179 

cells  of 179 

description  of 179 

figure  of 181 

fossU 186 

figure  of 184,  185 

not  uniform 180 

opaque,  why 184 

strength  of 183 

translucent 184 

thickness  of 179 

Honey-comb  coral 186 

figures  of 184,  185 

Honey-dew 389,  393 

Honey-extractor 321 

American 322 

figure  of 333 

automatic 324 

figure  of 324 

cover  for 325 

good  points  in 223 

history  of 321 

Hruschka's 321 

when  to  use 327 


53^ 


Honey-knife 325 

figure  of 325 

Honey-locust 430 

figure  of  430 

Honey-plants 389 

acacia 409 

alfalfa 420 

Alsike  clover 397,  413,  416 

April 401 

asparagus 443 

asters 449 

August  and  September 448 

banana 409 

barberry 408 

basil 443 

basswood 432 

beggar-ticks 449 

bergamot 439 

blackberry 427 

black  gum 409 

black  sage 408 

Blood-root 402 

blue  gum 406,  445 

Bokhara  clover 420 

boneset 439 

buckthorn 409   , 

buckwheat 397, 430,  448   ' 

button-bush 440 

catalpa    445 

catnip    448 

Chapman's 436 

chinquapia 409 

clover 420 

Alsike 397,413,  416 

crimson 416 

red 416,  429 

sweet 416 

white 397,  413 

coral  berry 451 

corn 428 

cotton 430 

cow-pea 393,  431 

cresson 62 

Culver's  root 444 

dandelion 402 

date-palm 413 

eucalyptus 406 

flgwort 395,  435 

fireweed 450 

fog-fruit 444 

fruit-trees 407 

gall-berry 401 

gilias 406 

gill 430 

Golden  honey-plant 440 

goldenrod 449 


Honey- Plants— {Continued)  : 

heartsease 448 

Hercules'  club 449 

honey-locust 430 

horehound 422 

horse-mint 409 

Indian  currant 451 

Indian  plantain 444 

iron-weed 444 

Japan  privet 409 

jasmine 442 

jessamine 442 

figure  of 442 

Judas-tree 404 

July  plants 432 

June  plants 413 

liver-leaf 402 

locust 428 

lucerne 420 

lupine 430 

magnolia 431 

mallow 431 

malva 444 

mangrove 447 

manzanita 405 

maple 402 

March 401 

matrimony-vine 430 

May  plants 401 

mesquite 404 

mignonette    421 

milk  weed 423 

mint 422 

mountain-laurel 441 

mountain-mint 443 

motherwort 422 

mustard 424 

okra 422 

orange 401 

palmetto  411,445 

palms 412,  445 

partridge-pea 429 

pepper 406 

persimmons 409 

pleurisy-root 423 

poplars 405 

rape 425 

raspberry 397,  427 

rattle-snake  root 440 

red-gum 445 

Rocky  Mountain  bee-plant  439 

sage 422 

saw- palmetto 411 

skunk-cabbage 402 

sour-gum 409 

sour-wood 441 


536 


Hoibey-riantx— (^Continued): 

special  planting 452 

spider-plant 452 

sunflower 449 

Spanish-needle 449 

St.  John's-wort 443 

stone  crop 431 

sugar-maple 397,  407 

sumac 408 

sweet  clover 416 

table  of 398 

teasel 428 

tick-seed 449 

tulip 427 

valuable 397 

varnish-tree 409 

verbenas 444 

viper's-bugloss 444 

Virginia-creeper 443 

wheat 394 

white  clover 397,  413 

white  sage 408 

willow 397,403 

willow-herb 395,  397,  450 

wistaria 407 

Honey-stomach 143 

figure  of 142 

Honey-vinegar 386 

Horehound 422 

Horsesstung 206 

Horse-mint 409 

figure  of 412 

Horse-power 251 

figure  of 251 

House-apiary 468 

figure  of 468 

on  wheels 469 

figure  of: 469 

Hruschka 321 

Huber,  Francis 22,  103 

Hub^  hive 234 

Jfcjection  to 238 

HilSKW  insects 122 

Hiftfearian  bees 58 

Hunting  bee-trees 262 

Hutchinson,  W.  Z 23 

Hymenoptera 35 

description  of 35 

highest  of  insects 36,    38 

Ichneumon  flies 37 

Ileum 145 

Imago  state 101 

Impregnation 116,  127 

Increase,  artificial 303 


Increase  of  colonies 293 

prevented 295 

Indian  currant 451 

Indian  plantain 444 

Inducements  to  bee-keeping...    14 

adaptation  to  women 17 

aids  the  nation 20 

excellence  for  amateurs. . .    16 

gives  food 19 

mental  discipline 19 

pollinates  flowers 20 

profits 15 

recreation 14 

Infertile  queens 118 

Insects 32 

collection  of 44 

description  of 33 

imago  of 101 

larva  of 98 

metamorphoses 34,    96 

parts  of 64 

pupa  of 99 

respiration  of 86 

Internal  anatomy  of  insects. . .    80 

Intestines 90,  145 

figureof 140 

Introducing-cage.287,  311,  317,  318 

Introduction  of  queen 311 

Simmins'  method 314 

very  valuable 314 

Iron-weed 444 

Italianizing 306,  310 

Italian  race 53,  306 

description  of 54 

figure  of 54 

history  of 53 

origin  of 53 

points  of  excellence  in 307 

Japan  buckwheat 397 

Japan  privet 409 

Jasmine 442 

figureof 442 

Jaws 66,  146 

figure  of 146 

Jones,D.  A., importation  of  bees 

47 55 

Journals 22 

American  Bee  Journal 22 

American  Bee-Keeper 23 

Bee-Keeper's  Review 23 

British  Bee  Journal 25 

Canadian  Bee  Journal 23 

Gleanings  in  Bee-Culture. .     23 

Lone  Star  Apiarist 24 

Progressive  Bee-Keeper  ...    24 


537 


Judas-tree 404 

figure  of 404 

Kegs  for  honey 378 

Kidneys  of  insects 90,  145 

Kipg-bird 508 

Knife 325 

uncapping 325 

Kxainer  bees  (see  Carniolan)  . .    57 

Labium 66,  131 

Labrum 66 

Ladies'  bee-dress 345 

Levulose 172 

Lamp-nursery 286 

Landois 122 

theory  of 122 

Langstroth,  Rev.  L.  L 211 

Langstroth  frame 227 

Langstroth  hive 210 

figure  of 210 

two-story 210 

Langstroth  on  the  Honey-Bee  .     24 

Larval  worker 161 

fed  what 161 

figure  of 433 

Laying  workers 130 

caused  by 131 

destroyed 290 

ovaries  of 130 

figure  of 130 

why  present 131 

Larva  of  bees 39 

Larva  of  insects 98 

figure  of 100 

great  eaters 98 

moulting  of 98 

Latreille.'. 61 

Legs  of  insects 79 

Lepidoptera 36 

Leuckart 103,  104 

Ligula 66,  133 

Ligurian  bee  (see  Italian) 53 

figure  of 54 

Linden 432 

Lining  bees 262 

Linnaeus 60 

Lobster 34 

Locust 428 

figure  of 428 

Lubbock 76,    77 

Lucern 420 

Lumber  for  hives 212 

right  side  out 212 

figure  of 212 

Lupine 430 


Magnolia 431 

figure  of 433 

Mclntyre's  uncapping-box 331 

Mailing-cage 319 

figure  of 319 

Male  bees 121 

Male  organs 92,  123 

figure  of 93 

Malvas 444 

Mammoth  red  clover 416,  429 

figure  of 415 

Malpighian 90,  145 

Mandibles 66 

Mangrove 447 

black 447 

true 448 

figure  of 444 

Mantis 5l'3 

figure  of 504 

Maple 402 

figure  of 402,  407 

March  honey-plants 401 

Marketing 373 

bees 385 

by  the  pound 386 

cases  for 381 

cases  for 386 

figure  of 381 

comb  honey 380 

extracted  honey 376 

honey 373 

queens 385 

rules  for 380 

Marriage-flight 112 

Mason  bees 42 

Mating  of  queen 112 

Matrimony-vine 430 

Mature  insects 101 

Maxilla 66 

Meal 188 

feeding  of 188 

Meal-beetle 488 

Megachile 42 

cells  of 42 

leg  of 43 

Mehring 353 

Melipona 40 

Mentum 66 

Metal  rabbets 223 

Mice 509 

Micropyle 101 

Microscope 69 

figure  of 68 

Mignonette 421 

figure  of 421 

Milkweed 423 


538 


II^DBX. 


Milktceed— (Continued): 

pollen  of 424 

figureof 424 

Miller,  Dr.  C.  C 16 

Millipeds |4 

Mimicry ^^ 


Mints. 


422 


figureof g2 

Mites ?06 

figure  of 0^° 

Moth  (see  bee-moth) 482 

Motherwort 4^* 

figure  of 42d 

Mountain-laurel 44 1 

figure  of 441 

Mountain-mint ^^ 


Mouth  organs. 


131 


figure  of 67,  132 

Movable-frame  hives 208 

history  of 209 

Moving  bees 30b 

Moving  colonies 319 

Munn  hive ■  •  •  ■  209 

figure  of 208,  209 

Muscles  of  insects 80 

Mustard 424 

figure  of. 424 

Muth,  C.  F 3^9 

Muth  bottles 3(7 

figure  of 376 

Myriopods 34 

Nectar }l\ 

digestion I'l 

Nervous  system  of  insects 81 

figureof 81,    82 

of  larvae 83 

figureof 84 

Neuter  bees 129 

New  bee-disease 481 

Newman,  Thomas  G 22 

Nuclei". 281 

hives  for 281 

how  formed 282 

Doolittle's  plan 283 

Nutse-bees 164 

Nursery 286 

lamp 286 

queen 286 

Nymph 99 

Observatory  hive 238 

figure  of 238 

Ocelli 73 

CEsophagus 142 

Okra...   422 

figure  of 422 


Open  sections 240 

Order  of  honey-bee 35 

Osmia 43 

Ovaries 93 

figureof 94 

of  laying  workers 130 

figur*of 130 

of  worker 130 

figure  of 130 

Oviduct 95 

Packing-box 458 

figure  of 458 

Pails  for  honey 377 

figure  of 377 

Palestine  bees 55 

Palmetto 445 

figure  of 443 

Palms 412.  446 

Papers  (see  bee-papers) 22 

Paraglossa 67 

Parasites 37 

Parker  foundation  fastener 361 

figure  of 361 

Parthenogenesis 114 

Partridge-pea 429 

figureof 429 

Pasturage 389 

Peet-cagel 313 

figure  of 312 

Pepper 406 

figureof '. 406 

Perforated  zinc 219 

Periodicals  (see  papers) 22 

Persimmon 409 

Phagocytes 86 

Pharynx 89 

Phenol 479 

for  foul  brood 479 

Pickled  brood 481 

Piping  of  queen 169 

Plain  sections 240 

case  for 241 

figures  of 241,  242 

Planta,  Dr. .  .108,  141,  161,  177,  188 

analyses  of  chyle 141 

analyses  of  wax 177 

composition  of  pollen 188 

Plant-lice 390 

figure  of 39L 

of  apple 391 

figureof 391 

of  beech 390 

of  elm 390 

of  sycamore 392 

of  willow 391 


539 


Plants  (see  honey-plants) 397 

Pleurisy-root 423 

Poisonous  honey 441 

Poison-sack 151 

Pollen  (bee-bread) 186 

albuminous 188 

composition  of j 188 

figure  of 187 

function  of 190 

how  gathered 188 

nature  of 190 

Pollen-basket 151 

figure  of 152 

Pollen-combs 154 

figure  of 153 

Pollen-hairs 79 

Pollen  in  winter 456 

Pollination  of  flowers 395 

by  bees 395 

very  important 395 

Poplars 405 

Porter  bee-escape 341 

Portico 212 

Pound  section 242 

Praying  mantis  (see  mantis) . . .  503 

Pridgen's  queen-rearing 278 

Products  of  bees 171 

of  other  insects 171 

Profits  of  bee-keeping ". ...     15 

Propolis 190 

nature  of 190 

function  of 190 

Pulvilli 150 

figure  of 150 

Pupa  of  insects 99 

figure  of 100 

Queen 103 

barren 118 

cage  for 311,  317,  318 

candy  for 318 

ceUof 110 

figure  of Ill,  283 

clipping  wing  of 288 

development  of 108 

doUar 316 

eggs  of 106 

figure  of 101 

eyes  of 105 

fecundity  of 106 

fed  by  workers 107 

figure  of 101 

food  of 107 

form  of 105 

function  of 119 

glands  of 105 


Cwem— ( Continued)  : 

how  reared 273 

unfertile 118 

introduction  of 287 

legs  of 106 

figure  of 104 

longevity  of 117 

lost 296 

mailing  of 319 

marketing 385 

mating  of 112 

mouth-parts  of 105 

ovaries  of 103 

figure  of 94,  105 

piping  of 147,  169 

rearing  of 213 

Alley  method 276 

Doolittle  method 277 

Pridgen  method 278 

removing  of 337 

shipping  of 317 

spermatheca  of 103 

sterile 118 

sting  of 106 

tongue  of 105 

figure  of 104 

trap  for 285 

where  to  purchase 316 

why  developed 112 

young  virgin  easily  intro- 
duced   314 

Queen-cage 311 

figure  of 311, 312, 317,  319 

Queen-cells 1 10 

figures  of Ill,  283 

cups 277 

figures  of 278,  279 

formed  when 165,  274 

forms  for 277 

figure  of 277 

placing  in  nucleus 282 

when  best 274 

Queen-excluding  honey-board. 

219 >. . . .  338 

figure  of 219 

Queen  lamp-nursery 286 

Queen-rearing 273 

how  done  273 

selection  in 274 

Queen-register 291 

figure  of 291 

Queen-trap 285 

figure  of 284 

Quinby  hive 235 

figure  of 235 


540 


Quinby  smoker 347 

figure  of 347 

Rabbet 216 

Races  of  bees 30,  52,  310 

Rape 425 

figure  of 425 

Raspberry 397,  427 

Reaumur 60,71,    74 

Red-gum 445 

Red  or  soft  maple 402 

figure  of 402 

Reese  cones 341 

figure  of 340 

Register  for  queen 271 

Reproductive  organs ...  92,  103,  124 

female 93,  103 

figure  of 94,  105 

male 93,  124 

figure  of 93 

Respiration  of  insects 86,    88 

figure  of 33 

Respiratory  system  of  insects. .     86 

Reversible  frames 229 

Reversing 339 

Ripe  honey 334 

Robber-flies 488 

Robbing 473 

remedy  for 474 

Rocky  Mountain  bee-plant 439 

figure  of 437 

Root,  A.  1 23 

Royal  jelly 108 

Sage 422 

black 408 

figure  of 410 

white 408 

figure  of 411 

Salicylic  acid 479 

for  foul  brood 479 

for  mucilage 481 

Salivary  glands 91,  134 

Saw 252 

Saw-flies 38 

Saw-palmetto 411 

Saw-table  252 

Scale  insects 389 

figure  of 389 

remedy  for 390 

Schiemenz 106,  139 

theory  of 139 

Schonfeld 107,  139,  143 

Scraper 291 

figiire  of 290 

Sealed  brood 162 

Secretory  organs 91,  134 


Sections 239 

adjusting  of 339 

comb  honey  in 239 

dovetailed 240 

figure  of 240 

freed  of  bees 340 

getting  bees  into 339 

history  of 239 

how  placed 241 

in  crates 247 

figures  of 247,  248,  249 

in  wide  frames 244 

figure  of 244,  245 

one-piece 240 

figure  of 240 

plain 241 

case  for 241 

figure  of 241 

pound 242 

prize 243 

removal  of 339 

size  and  style  of 339,  242 

width  of 242 

Separators 242,  250,  338 

Shade-board 221 

Shade  for  bees 254 

grape-vine 255 

grove 254 

Shipping  colonies 319,  385 

on  cars 320 

in  wagon 320 

Shrew 510 

figure  of 510 

Shuck  feeder 269 

figure  of 269 

Shuck  hive 226 

Simplicity  hive 213 

figure  of 213 

SkunK-cabbage 402 

Slatted  honey-board 219 

figure  of 218 

Slotted  honey-board 219,  338 

Small  intestine 145 

Smell  in  insects 70 

illustrated 70 

seat  of 70 

Smith  feeder 270 

figure  of 270 

Smoker 347 

Smokers 347 

Bingham 348 

figure  of 347 

Clark 348 

figure  of 348 

Quinby 347 

figure  of 347 


541 


Smyrnian  bees 58 

Sourwood 441 

'figure  of 440 

Spanish-needles 449 

Species  of  Apis 52 

adonsoni 46 

florea 48,    51 

comb  of 51 

dorsata 48 

Indica 46,    51 

comb  of 50 

figure  of 50 

unicolor * 48 

zonata 46 

Specialists 13 

Species  of  honey-bee 52 

Spermatheca 94,  103 

Sperm-cells 92;  124 

figure  of 124 

Spermatophore 124 

Spermatozoa 92,  124 

Spider-plant 452 

figure  of 451 

Spiders 35,  508 

Spring  dwindling 466 

Starter 361 

Sterile  queen 118 

Stimulative  feeding. .  .264,  273,  401 

Stinging  bug 493 

figure  of 494,  495 

Stingless  bees 40 

Sting  of  bees 156 

ammonia  for 350 

anatomy  of 156 

description  of 156 

figure  of 157,  159 

glands  of 156 

how  cured 349 

how  to  prevent 343 

of  other  Hymenoptera 156 

physiology  of 156 

St.  John's-wort 443 

Stomach 145 

of  insects 90 

Stomach-mouth 144 

figure  of 143,  144 

Stomach-valve 144 

figure  of 142 

Stone-crop 431 

Sub-earth  ventilator 462 

Sugars 171 

Sulphuring 342,  380,  487 

Sumac 408 

Sunflowers 449 

Supers 247 

figure  of 247 


Surplus  case 247 

Heddon 220 

Surplus  comb  honey 239 

Swammerdam 59,    74 

Swarming 165,  293 

cut  short 168 

preparation  for 165 

prevented 301 

Swarms — 

absconding 305 

after 168 

hiving 297 

second 168 

prevented 300 

several  at  once 296,  300 

Sweat  theory 350 

Sweet  clover 416 

figure  of 416 

Syrian  race 55,  310 

description 55 

Tachina-fly 498 

figure  of 498 

Tailor-bee 42 

Tarsus 148 

Taylor's  foundation  fastener  ..  361 

Teasel 428 

figure  of 427 

Telegony 128 

Temperature  for  winter 457 

Test  for  honey 175 

Texas  fever 35 

Thorax 78 

muscles  of 78 

figure  of 78 

of  insects 64 

organs  of 65 

Tick,  Texas 35 

Tickseed 449 

Tibia 148 

Tibial  spur 79 

Toads 509 

Tool  for  apiary 291 

figure  of 290 

Tongue 134 

of  queen 105 

figure  of 104 

of  worker 134 

figure  of '...67,  132 

Tongue  register 307 

Tracheae 86 

figure  of 87 

of  insects 86 

Transferring 258 

clasps 260 

combs 259 


542 


Transferring— {Continued)  : 

Heddon's  method 258 

old  method 259 

Transformations  of  insects 96 

complete 96 

incomplete 102 

stages  of 96 

Traps- 
drone  285 

queen 285 

Tread-power 282 

Trigona 40 

Trochanter 79 

T  super 248 

figure  of 248 

Tulip  bark-louse 389 

figure  of 389 

Tulip-tree 427 

figure  of 426 

Tunisian  bee 58 

Uncapping 325 

Uncapping-caa 331 

figure  of 331 

Uncapping-box 331 

figure  of 331 

Uncapping-knife 325 

Bingham's 325 

figure  of 325 

Uniting 465 

Urinary  tubules 90,  145 

Varnish-tree 409 

Veil 344 

figure  of 345 

Verbena 444 

Vinegar 386 

Viper's-bugloss 444 

Virgil 53,    59 

Virginia-creeper 443 

Vision  of  insects 73 

Voice  of  bee 122,  147 

Voice  of  queen 169 

Wagner,  Samuel 22 

Wasps 505 

Water  for  bees 161 

Wax 176,  367 

adulteration  of 176,  372 

bleaching 372 

cleansing 372 

extractor 367 

Boardraan 369 

Jwies 368 

figure  of  368 


Wax — (Continued)  : 

solar 369 

figure  of 369 

Swiss 368 

figure  of 367 

function  of 179 

how  secured 367 

nature  of 177 

origin  of 176 

secretion  of 178 

voluntary 178 

why  secreted 177 

Wax-extractor 367 

Boardman 369 

Jones 368 

figure  of 368 

solar 369 

figure  of 369 

Swiss 368 

figure  of 367 

Wax-jaws 154 

figure  of 152,  153 

Wax-plates 155 

figure  of 155 

Wax-pockets 155 

figure  of 155 

Wax-press 370 

figure  of 371 

Wax-sheets 358 

Wedding-flight 112 

Wee  bee-moth 487 

figure  of 487 

remedy  for 487 

Weight  of  bees 121,  130 

Weight  of  honey-load 130 

Weight  of  pollen-load 130 

West  cell-protector 287 

figure  of 287 

White  clover 397,  413 

figure  of 413 

White  sage 408 

figure  of 411 

Whitman  pump 305 

Who  may  keep  bees 13 

Who  should  not  keep  bees 14 

Wide  frames 244 

figure  of 244,  245,  246 

Wild  bees 40,41,43,    43 

WUlow 397,  403 

figure  of 403 

Willow-herb 395,  397 

figure  of 450 

Wind-break 255 

Wings.... 45 

of  bee 45 

figure  of 45 


543 


Wings —  ( Contintied)  : 

of  insects 78 

Wintering:  bees 454 

why  diflBcult 454 

requisites  to 456 

Wired  frames 230,  364 

figure  of 365 

Wire  imbedder 366 

figure  of 366 

Wistaria 407 

figures  of 408,  409 

Women  as  bee-keepers 17 

Workers 129 

development  of 130 

flightof 147 

food  of  larva 146 

function  of 163 

of  old 164  I 

of  young 164 

glands  of 134 

head  of 44 

figure  of 47 

jaws  of 146 

figure  of 139,  146 

laying ; 130 

figure  of  130 

legs  of 148,  151 

anterior 148 


Workers — {Continued)  : 

figure  of 149,  152,  153 

middle 151 

posterior 151 

figure  of 152 

longevity  of 163 

mouth-parts  of 134 

figures  of 132,  134 

ovaries  of 130 

figure  of 130 

sting  of 156 

figure  of 157 

tongue  of 133 

figure  of 132,  134 

voice  of 147 

weight  of 121 

wings  of 147 

Worker-eggs 160 

Worms 31 

Xylocopa 41 

York,  George  W 22 

Young's  easel 316 

figure  of 315 

Zinc 219 

perforated 219,  338 


The  American  Bee  Journal. 

la  order  to  become  a  progressive  apiarist,  and  at  the  same  time 
realize  the  most  money  from  your  bees,  you  cannot  afford  to  be  with- 
out a  good  bee-paper,  The  American  Bee  Journal,  established  in 
1861,  is  a  16-paB-e  weekly,  well  illustrated,  and  fully  up-to-date  in 
everything  pertaining  to  bee-culture. 

ITS  DEPARTMENTS: 

Contributed  Articles:— Discussions  of  Important  Topics  and  Bee- 
Keeping  Experiences— by  experts. 

Convention  Proceedings:— Just  what  this  implies. 

Questions  and  Answers:— In  charge  of  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller,  a  bee- 
keeper of  40  years'  experience,  who  answers  all  questions.  Invalua- 
ble to  beginners  in  bee  keeping. 

Editorial  Comments:— Just  wjiat  this  indicates. 

The  Weekly  Budget:- Being  mainly  personal  items  and  miscella- 
neous items. 

Beedom  Boiled  Down:— Cream  of  bee-literature. 

The  Afterthought:— This  is  in  charge  of  Mr.  E.  E.  Hasty,  who  re- 
views what  has  appeared  in  recent  numbers  of  the  American  Bee 
Journal,  pointing  out  any  errors  and  commending  the  good  things. 

Qeneral  Items:— Being  filled  with  short  experiences  and  reports  of 
the  honey  crop,  conditions  of  bees,  etc. 

Price  of  the  Bee  Journal,  one  year,  $1.00;  or  for  $1.75  we  will  send 
the  Bee  Journal  a  vear  and  a  copy  of  this  [Prof.  Cook's]  book. 

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QEORQE  W.  YORK  &  CO.,  144  &  "46  Erie  St.,CI1ICAaO.  ILL. 


THE  BEE/F^reR'S  GUIDE  j 

MANUAL  OF  THE  APIARY, 

By  A.  J.  COOK,  Pomona  College,  Claremont,  California, 

Late  Professor  of  Entomology  in  the  Michigan  State  Agricultural  College. 
18,000  Already  Sold.  540  Pages.  295  Illustrations. 

This  is  a  new  edition  of  Prof.  Cook's  Manual  of  the  Apiary,  enlarged 
and  elegantly  illustrated.  The  first  edition  of  3000  copies  was  exhausted 
in  about  18  months — a  sale  unprecedented  in  the  annals  of  bee-culture. 

This  edition  has  been  thoroughly  revised,  much  new  matter  and  many 
costly  illustrations  added,  and  it  has  been  produced  with  great  care, 
patient  study,  and  persistent  research.  It  comprises  a  full  delineation  of 
the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  honey-bee,  illustrated  with  many  ex- 
pensive wood  engravings;  the  products  of  the  honey-bee ;  the  races  of 
bees;  full  descriptions  of  honey -producing  plants,  trees,  shrubs,  etc., 
splendidly  illustrated ;  and  last,  though  not  least,  detailed  instructions  for 
the  various  manipulations  necessary  in  the  apiary. 

READ  THE  FOLLOWING  OPINIONS  OF  THE   BOOK. 

I  believe  yours  the  best  practical  work  in  the  world. — L.  L.  Lang- 
stroth. 

I  feel  like  thanking  God  that  we  have  such  a  man  as  Prof.  Cook  to 
take  hold  of  the  subject  of  bee-culture  in  the  masterly  way  in  which  he 
has  done  it. — Gleanivgs  in  Bee-Culture. 

It  is  a  book  which  does  credit  to  our  calling ;  one  that  every  bee- 
keeper may  welcome  as  a  fit  exponent  of  the  science  which  gives  pleasure 
to  all  who  are  engaged  in  it. — American  Bee  Journal. 

Cook's  new  "  Manual  of  the  Apiary  "  comes  with  high  encomiums 
from  America,  and  certainly  it  appears  to  have  cut  the  ground  from  under 
future  book-makers  for  some  time  to  come. — British  Bee  Journal. 

Prof.  A.  J.  Cook's  *'  Manual  of  the  Apiary "  contains,  besides  the 
description  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  honey-bee,  beautifully 
illustrated,  the  products  and  races  of  the  bees,  honey-plants,  the  instruc- 
tions for  the  different  .operations  performed  in  the  hives.  All  agree  that 
it  is  the  work  of  a  master,  and  is  of  real  \a.\ne.—V  Apiculteur,  Paris. 

Every  point  connected  with  the  subject  is  handled  in  a  clear,  exhaus- 
tive, yet  pithy  and  practical  manner. — Rural  New-  Yorker. 

The  most  thorough  work  on  the  apiary  ever  published,  and  the  only 
one  illustrating  the  various  bee-plants. — Lansing  {Jlich.)  Republican.. 

Treating  the  art  in  all  its  different  branches  in  a  clear,  concise,  and 
interesting  manner.  — TAe  Canadian  Entomologist. 

It  is  the  fullest,  most  practical  and  most  satisfactory  treatise  on  the 
subject  now  before  the  -pxiXAic.— Country  Gentleman. 

We  have  perused  with  great  pleasure  the  vade  mecum  of  the  bee- 
keeper. It  is  replete  with  the  best  information  on  everything  belonging 
to  apiculture.  To  all  taking  an  interest  in  this  subject  we  say :  Obtain 
this  valuable  work,  read  it  carefully,  and  practice  as  advised. — Agricul- 
turist, Quebec. 

It  is  so  greatly  superior  to  all  the  other  works  that  I  recommend  no 
other. — D.  A.  Jones. 

Price,  by  mail,  $1.20.  Liberal  discount  made  to  dealers,  and  to  news- 
papers who  may  desire  to  send  it  as  a  premium. 

A.  J.  COOK, 

Claremont,  California.  Author  and  Publisher. 


